Reaching Adulthood: Completing Human Developmental Stages

The human development is a very complex yet fascinating part of our lives. We look back at the point we first remembered how young we were, the things we did that were so different from the things we do today. More often than not, we take for granted the stages where significant amount of changes that shaped us took place.Our infancy and pre-school years show much of our earlier attitudes and behaviors which became cemented as we grow older. Our environment played such a significant role in making us the way we are today. As I have mentioned in the first project, we understand our being a male or a female when we realize the roles and activities attached to one’s gender.Even our parents dictate how we should act or what toy to play and we get punished by disobeying them. And at this stage we develop a concept of what makes us happy or sad, we can adapt to our environment and we avoid doing things that would result to an unfavorable consequence.These things we undergo during ou r earlier years further have an effect on the next stage of our lives. What we liked to do, how well we can adapt to other people, how we behave or act upon exposure to a stimulus etc. continue in our middle childhood and adolescence years.The middle childhood prepares us for what we will face in our adolescence years, the same way our infancy and pre-school years prepared us for the later years.During our middle childhood and adolescence, we are thrust into a great deal of changes, whether mentally, physically, socially and emotionally. We like to be independent and to go out of the familial circle that surrounded us when we were young.In my experience, it was this time when I started making friends in school and in my neighborhood. I could also face other people who were not my age. This stage marks the awakening of cognitive and emotional aspects of one person. We learn to judge the people around us, to be curious of the things which we cannot easily understand, to feel different emotions that seemed so new.The countless and various experiences we undergo during this stage further hone, change, influence or impact the way we are. They make our personality unique, mold our behavior and attitudes and develop our skills. Everything we have learned we apply to our present lives.Our infancy and pre-school years show much of our earlier attitudes and behaviors which became cemented as we grow older. Our environment played such a significant role in making us the way we are today. As I have mentioned in the first project, we understand our being a male or a female when we realize the roles and activities attached to one’s gender.Even our parents dictate how we should act or what toy to play and we get punished by disobeying them. And at this stage we develop a concept of what makes us happy or sad, we can adapt to our environment and we avoid doing things that would result to an unfavorable consequence.These things we undergo during our earlier years furthe r have an effect on the next stage of our lives. What we liked to do, how well we can adapt to other people, how we behave or act upon exposure to a stimulus etc. continue in our middle childhood and adolescence years. The middle childhood prepares us for what we will face in our adolescence years, the same way our infancy and pre-school years prepared us for the later years.During our middle childhood and adolescence, we are thrust into a great deal of changes, whether mentally, physically, socially and emotionally. We like to be independent and to go out of the familial circle that surrounded us when we were young. In my experience, it was this time when I started making friends in school and in my neighborhood. I could also face other people who were not my age.This stage marks the awakening of cognitive and emotional aspects of one person. We learn to judge the people around us, to be curious of the things which we cannot easily understand, to feel different emotions that seemed so new and to try things which pique our curiosity.My interview’s particular experience shows this. He started using prohibited drugs during his adolescence. This kind of deed roots from many factors such as family problems, inferiority complex or social dilemma.Dale says that all of his family’s attention was on his younger sister, Mikaela. No matter how much good he does, his family doesn’t seem to notice. So what he did was involve himself in things that would get him into trouble, if only to get his parents’ attention.The countless and various experiences we undergo during this stage further hone, change, influence or impact the way we are. They make our personality unique, mold our behavior and attitudes and develop our skills. Everything we have learned we apply to our present lives.Changes and phenomenon in middle childhood, as noted in my first project, are stepping stones for the adolescence; changes and phenomenon in adolescence, as noted in my second project, are preparation for adulthood.AdulthoodAdulthood is a hazardous and difficult journey for many people to take, and not just a destination of security and safety that we reach once and for all. It is a reference point from which other life stages are judged.The experiences which became imprinted in our memories and the self beliefs and social standards that we have molded within ourselves affect us in our present actions and how we see ourselves. But, these beliefs and standards change when we are exposed to different stimuli or situation.At this stage, I can already foresee my own future, in what is called self-schema. These are the templates of our future, and they tell us what we can be after several years, what our career would be etc. Still, I ask myself, what will I be really in the next years?Since I would not be able to answer this question, I have interviewed Emelita Sacra, a 49-year-old single mother and currently taking over as line leader and quality cont rol officer in a garment corporation. She was separated from her husband, but she manages to raise her daughter well.Emelita used to dream of finishing just high school, since her family’s source of livelihood is barely enough for the 11 members of the family. She studied hard and eventually earned a scholarship, her ticket to college.But her dream faded when she chose to help her parents in meeting the family’s needs.   She was able to send two of her siblings to college, and that was enough for her even if she had sacrificed her own dream.This shows that what she desperately wanted before was put aside by the emergence of a more important situation. She said that though there were many events in her life which affected her, only few values and interests changed. Some of which were the earthly things she wanted before, such as clothes, cosmetics and leisure moments.But now, these things became unimportant because her daughter became her priority. Her situation now i s a far cry from her situation before. Now that her daughter is in college, she has to work hard and limit the luxuries of life. Every spare time was spent doing extra works to be able to provide for her only child.When she was a teenager, all that mattered was helping her family to earn money and send the children to school. Now, what matters is raising her daughter well and providing her education. This attitude is better explained by Jean Piaget’s generativity, wherein Emelita thinks of the future of her daughter instead of her own life.Emelita says that the values she learned from her younger years didn’t change much. As to the moral aspect, nothing changed, but some things were added. She instilled to her daughter the moral values her parents taught her.Basically, when we reach the adulthood stage, as I viewed my interviewee, there are changes in our self concept. For example, we might have low self efficacy before, which is our competence in accomplishing things. But because we have gone through many things, and we were able to endure the pains and dilemmas of life, we have increased our self efficacy considering the fact that we are older than before, we could handle and do things better now.Another example of self concept that had changed during our adulthood years is the self awareness. Adults tend to be more focused and are aware of their responsibilities at their age. For example, my interviewee became aware of her role as a mother and father solely to her daughter. Aside from that, she also became aware of her priorities in the present time compared before. At this point in life, most people have grown matured, as to how they should act, how they should be, and what they should do.Generally, lots of things have made their contribution to each of stages in life. Some factors that might affect each life stage are inherent and gene factor. Biologically speaking, this could really happen, such that our behavior and character could be attr ibuted to the innate potentials of ourselves.However, we could not deny the fact that the environment that we are living in has contributed big changes not only in our lives, but more specifically, in ourselves.Those external factors are the ones we experience during our infancy stage to childhood, then adolescence stage, and lastly adulthood stage. The events in our everyday lives have impacts such that, we are not aware that those events molded us into what are now, and what we are going to be in the near future.Thus, the human development is a very vicious path, if we are going to consider all the details. Yet, we could say that human development is like a metamorphose process of butterfly. The only difference is that, the butterfly would surely fly if it comes out from the pupae, but each of us has no assurance if we can soar high in our lives.REFERENCESBoeree, G. Personality Theories. (NO DATE). Erik Erikson, 1902 – 1994. Retrieved August   29, 2007 from the World Wide Web: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/erikson.htmlJames, W. The Principles of Psychology. Retrieved August 29, 2007 from the World Wide Web: http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/James/Principles/prin10.htmLerner, R. Concepts and Theories of Human Development. Retrieved August 29, 2007 from the site of UAH Library on World Wide Web: http://libdblist.uah.edu/browse.php?list=P&source_id=17Myers, D. Exploring Social Psychology. 3rd ed. November 2003. McGraw-Hill Companies.

Chapter 22 The Unexpected Task

â€Å"Potter! Weasley! Will you pay attention?† Professor McGonagall's irritated voice cracked like a whip through the Transfiguration class on Thursday, and Harry and Ron both jumped and looked up. It was the end of the lesson; they had finished their work; the guinea fowl they had been changing into guinea pigs had been shut away in a large cage on Professor McGonagall's desk (Neville's still had feathers); they had copied down their homework from the blackboard (â€Å"Describe, with examples, the ways in which Transforming Spells must be adapted when performing Cross-Species Switches†}. The bell was due to ring at any moment, and Harry and Ron, who had been having a sword fight with a couple of Fred and George's fake wands at the back of the class, looked up, Ron holding a tin parrot and Harry, a rubber haddock. â€Å"Now that Potter and Weasley have been kind enough to act their age,† said Professor McGonagall, with an angry look at the pair of them as the head of Harry's haddock drooped and fell silently to the floor – Ron's parrot's beak had severed it moments before – â€Å"I have something to say to you all. â€Å"The Yule Ball is approaching – a traditional part of the Triwizard Tournament and an opportunity for us to socialize with our foreign guests. Now, the ball will be open only to fourth years and above – although you may invite a younger student if you wish -â€Å" Lavender Brown let out a shrill giggle. Parvati Patil nudged her hard in the ribs, her face working furiously as she too fought not to giggle. They both looked around at Harry, Professor McGonagall ignored them, which Harry thought was distinctly unfair, as she had just told off him and Ron. â€Å"Dress robes will be worn,† Professor McGonagall continued, â€Å"and the ball will start at eight o'clock on Christmas Day, finishing at midnight in the Great Hall. Now then -â€Å" Professor McGonagall stared deliberately around the class. â€Å"The Yule Ball is of course a chance for us all to – er – let our hair down,† she said, in a disapproving voice. Lavender giggled harder than ever, with her hand pressed hard against her mouth to stifle the sound. Harry could see what was funny this time: Professor McGonagall, with her hair in a tight bun, looked as though she had never let her hair down in any sense. â€Å"But that does NOT mean,† Professor McGonagall went on, â€Å"that we will be relaxing the standards of behavior we expect from Hogwarts students. I will be most seriously displeased if a Gryffindor student embarrasses the school in any way.† The bell rang, and there was the usual scuffle of activity as everyone packed their bags and swung them onto their shoulders. Professor McGonagall called above the noise, â€Å"Potter – a word, if you please.† Assuming this had something to do with his headless rubber haddock, Harry proceeded gloomily to the teacher's desk. Professor McGonagall waited until the rest of the class had gone, and then said, â€Å"Potter, the champions and their partners -â€Å" â€Å"What partners?† said Harry. Profesor McGonagall looked suspiciously at him, as though she thought he was trying to be funny. â€Å"Your partners for the Yule Ball, Potter,† she said coldly. â€Å"Your dance partners.† Harry's insides seemed to curl up and shrivel. â€Å"Dance partners?† He felt himself going red. â€Å"I don't dance,† he said quickly. â€Å"Oh yes, you do,† said Professor McGonagall irritably. â€Å"That's what I'm telling you. Traditionally, the champions and their partners open the ball.† Harry had a sudden mental image of himself in a top hat and tails, accompanied by a girl in the sort of frilly dress Aunt Petunia always wore to Uncle Vernon's work parties. â€Å"I'm not dancing,† he said. â€Å"It is traditional,† said Professor McGonagall firmly. â€Å"You are a Hogwarts champion, and you will do what is expected of you as a representative of the school. So make sure you get yourself a partner, Potter.† â€Å"But – I don't -â€Å" â€Å"You heard me, Potter,† said Professor McGonagall in a very final sort of way. A week ago. Harry would have said finding a partner for a dance would be a cinch compared to taking on a Hungarian Horntail. But now that he had done the latter, and was facing the prospect of asking a girl to the ball, he thought he'd rather have another round with the dragon. Harry had never known so many people to put their names down to stay at Hogwarts for Christmas; he always did, of course, because the alternative was usually going back to Privet Drive, but he had always been very much in the minority before now. This year, however, everyone in the fourth year and above seemed to be staying, and they all seemed to Harry to be obsessed with the coming ball – or at least all the girls were, and it was amazing how many girls Hogwarts suddenly seemed to hold; he had never quite noticed that before. Girls giggling and whispering in the corridors, girls shrieking with laughter as boys passed them, girls excitedly comparing notes on what they were going to wear on Christmas night†¦. â€Å"Why do they have to move in packs?† Harry asked Ron as a dozen or so girls walked past them, sniggering and staring at Harry. â€Å"How're you supposed to get one on their own to ask them?† â€Å"Lasso one?† Ron suggested. â€Å"Got any idea who you're going to try?† Harry didn't answer. He knew perfectly well whom he'd like to ask, but working up the nerve was something else†¦.Cho was a year older than he was; she was very pretty; she was a very good Quidditch player, and she was also very popular. Ron seemed to know what was going on inside Harry's head. â€Å"Listen, you're not going to have any trouble. You're a champion. You've just beaten a Hungarian Horntail. I bet they'll be queuing up to go with you.† In tribute to their recently repaired friendship, Ron had kept the bitterness in his voice to a bare minimum. Moreover, to Harry's amazement, he turned out to be quite right. A curly-haired third-year Hufflepuff girl to whom Harry had never spoken in his life asked him to go to the ball with her the very next day. Harry was so taken aback he said no before he'd even stopped to consider the matter. The girl walked off looking rather hurt, and Harry had to endure Dean's, Seamus's, and Ron's taunts about her all through History of Magic. The following day, two more girls asked him, a second year and (to his horror) a fifth year who looked as though she might knock him out if he refused. â€Å"She was quite good-looking,† said Ron fairly, after he'd stopped laughing. â€Å"She was a foot taller than me,† said Harry, still unnerved. â€Å"Imagine what I'd look like trying to dance with her.† Hermione's words about Krum kept coming back to him. â€Å"They only like him because he's famous!† Harry doubted very much if any of the girls who had asked to be his partner so far would have wanted to go to the ball with him if he hadn't been a school champion. Then he wondered if this would bother him if Cho asked him. On the whole. Harry had to admit that even with the embarrassing prospect of opening the ball before him, life had definitely improved since he had got through the first task. He wasn't attracting nearly as much unpleasantness in the corridors anymore, which he suspected had a lot to do with Cedric – he had an idea Cedric might have told the Hufflepuffs to leave Harry alone, in gratitude for Harry's tip-off about the dragons. There seemed to be fewer Support Cedric Diggory! badges around too. Draco Malfoy, of course, was still quoting Rita Skeeter's article to him at every possible opportunity, but he was getting fewer and fewer laughs out of it – and just to heighten Harry's feeling of well-being, no story about Hagrid had appeared in the Daily Prophet. â€Å"She didn' seem very int'rested in magical creatures, ter tell yeh the truth,† Hagrid said, when Harry, Ron, and Hermione asked him how his interview with Rita Skeeter had gone during the last Care of Magical Creatures lesson of the term. To their very great relief, Hagrid had given up on direct contact with the skrewts now, and they were merely sheltering behind his cabin today, sitting at a trestle table and preparing a fresh selection of food with which to tempt the skrewts. â€Å"She jus' wanted me ter talk about you, Harry,† Hagrid continued in a low voice. â€Å"Well, I told her we'd been friends since I went ter fetch yeh from the Dursleys. ‘Never had to tell him off in four years?' she said. ‘Never played you up in lessons, has he?' I told her no, an she didn' seem happy at all. Yeh'd think she wanted me to say yeh were horrible, Harry.† â€Å"‘Course she did,† said Harry, throwing lumps of dragon liver into a large metal bowl and picking up his knife to cut some more. â€Å"She can't keep writing about what a tragic little hero I am, it'll get boring.† â€Å"She wants a new angle, Hagrid,† said Ron wisely as he shelled salamander eggs. â€Å"You were supposed to say Harry's a mad delinquent!† â€Å"But he's not!† said Hagrid, looking genuinely shocked. â€Å"She should've interviewed Snape,† said Harry grimly. â€Å"He'd give her the goods on me any day. ‘Potter has been crossing lines ever since he first arrived at this school†¦.'† â€Å"Said that, did he?† said Hagrid, while Ron and Hermione laughed. â€Å"Well, yeh might've bent a few rules. Harry, bu' yeh're all righ' really, aren' you?† â€Å"Cheers, Hagrid,† said Harry, grinning. â€Å"You coming to this ball thing on Christmas Day, Hagrid?† said Ron. â€Å"Though' I might look in on it, yeah,† said Hagrid gruffly. â€Å"Should be a good do, I reckon. You'll be openin the dancin', won yeh, Harry? Who're you takin'?† â€Å"No one, yet,† said Harry, feeling himself going red again. Hagrid didn't pursue the subject. The last week of term became increasingly boisterous as it progressed. Rumors about the Yule Ball were flying everywhere, though Harry didn't believe half of them – for instance, that Dumbledore had bought eight hundred barrels of mulled mead from Madam Rosmerta. It seemed to be fact, however, that he had booked the Weird Sisters. Exactly who or what the Weird Sisters were Harry didn't know, never having had access to a wizard's wireless, but he deduced from the wild excitement of those who had grown up listening to the WWN (Wizarding Wireless Network) that they were a very famous musical group. Some of the teachers, like little Professor Flitwick, gave up trying to teach them much when their minds were so clearly elsewhere; he allowed them to play games in his lesson on Wednesday, and spent most of it talking to Harry about the perfect Summoning Charm Harry had used during the first task of the Triwizard Tournament. Other teachers were not so generous. Nothing would ever deflect Professor Binns, for example, from plowing on through his notes on goblin rebellions – as Binns hadn't let his own death stand in the way of continuing to teach, they supposed a small thing like Christmas wasn't going to put him off. It was amazing how he could make even bloody and vicious goblin riots sound as boring as Percy's cauldron-bottom report. Professors McGonagall and Moody kept them working until the very last second of their classes too, and Snape, of course, would no sooner let them play games in class than adopt Harry. Staring nastily around at them all, he informed them that he would be testing them on poison antidotes during the last lesson of the term. â€Å"Evil, he is,† Ron said bitterly that night in the Gryffindor common room. â€Å"Springing a test on us on the last day. Ruining the last bit of term with a whole load of studying.† â€Å"Mmm†¦you're not exactly straining yourself, though, are you?† said Hermione, looking at him over the top of her Potions notes. Ron was busy building a card castle out of his Exploding Snap pack – a much more interesting pastime than with Muggle cards, because of the chance that the whole thing would blow up at any second. â€Å"It's Christmas, Hermione,† said Harry lazily; he was rereading Flying with the Cannons for the tenth time in an armchair near the fire. Hermione looked severely over at him too. â€Å"I'd have thought you'd be doing something constructive, Harry, even if you don't want to learn your antidotes!† â€Å"Like what?† Harry said as he watched Joey Jenkins of the Cannons belt a Bludger toward a Ballycastle Bats Chaser. â€Å"That egg!† Hermione hissed. â€Å"Come on, Hermione, I've got till February the twenty-fourth,† Harry said. He had put the golden egg upstairs in his trunk and hadn't opened it since the celebration party after the first task. There were still two and a half months to go until he needed to know what all the screechy wailing meant, after all. â€Å"But it might take weeks to work it out!† said Hermione. â€Å"You're going to look a real idiot if everyone else knows what the next task is and you don't!† â€Å"Leave him alone, Hermione, he's earned a bit of a break,† said Ron, and he placed the last two cards on top of the castle and the whole lot blew up, singeing his eyebrows. â€Å"Nice look, Ron†¦go well with your dress robes, that will.† It was Fred and George. They sat down at the table with Harry, Ron, and Hermione as Ron felt how much damage had been done. â€Å"Ron, can we borrow Pigwidgeon?† George asked. â€Å"No, he's off delivering a letter,† said Ron. â€Å"Why?† â€Å"Because George wants to invite him to the ball,† said Fred sarcastically. â€Å"Because we want to send a letter, you stupid great prat,† said George. â€Å"Who d'you two keep writing to, eh?† said Ron. â€Å"Nose out, Ron, or I'll burn that for you too,† said Fred, waving his wand threateningly. â€Å"So†¦you lot got dates for the ball yet?† â€Å"Nope,† said Ron. â€Å"Well, you'd better hurry up, mate, or all the good ones will be gone,† said Fred. â€Å"Who're you going with, then?† said Ron. â€Å"Angelina,† said Fred promptly, without a trace of embarrassment. â€Å"What?† said Ron, taken aback. â€Å"You've already asked her?† â€Å"Good point,† said Fred. He turned his head and called across the common room, â€Å"Oi! Angelina!† Angelina, who had been chatting with Alicia Spinnet near the fire, looked over at him. â€Å"What?† she called back. â€Å"Want to come to the ball with me?† Angelina gave Fred an appraising sort of look. â€Å"All right, then,† she said, and she turned back to Alicia and carried on chatting with a bit of a grin on her face. â€Å"There you go,† said Fred to Harry and Ron, â€Å"piece of cake.† He got to his feet, yawning, and said, â€Å"We'd better use a school owl then, George, come on†¦.† They left. Ron stopped feeling his eyebrows and looked across the smoldering wreck of his card castle at Harry. â€Å"We should get a move on, you know†¦ask someone. He's right. We don't want to end up with a pair of trolls.† Hermione let out a sputter of indignation. â€Å"A pair of†¦what, excuse me?† â€Å"Well – you know,† said Ron, shrugging. â€Å"I'd rather go alone than with – with Eloise Midgen, say.† â€Å"Her acne's loads better lately – and she's really nice!† â€Å"Her nose is off-center,† said Ron. â€Å"Oh I see,† Hermione said, bristling. â€Å"So basically, you're going to take the best-looking girl who'll have you, even if she's completely horrible?† â€Å"Er – yeah, that sounds about right,† said Ron. â€Å"I'm going to bed,† Hermione snapped, and she swept off toward the girls' staircase without another word. The Hogwarts staff, demonstrating a continued desire to impress the visitors from Beauxbatons and Durmstrang, seemed determined to show the castle at its best this Christmas. When the decorations went up. Harry noticed that they were the most stunning he had yet seen inside the school. Everlasting icicles had been attached to the banisters of the marble staircase; the usual twelve Christmas trees in the Great Hall were bedecked with everything from luminous holly berries to real, hooting, golden owls, and the suits of armor had all been bewitched to sing carols whenever anyone passed them. It was quite something to hear â€Å"O Come, All Ye Faithful† sung by an empty helmet that only knew half the words. Several times, Filch the caretaker had to extract Peeves from inside the armor, where he had taken to hiding, filling in the gaps in the songs with lyrics of his own invention, all of which were very rude. And still. Harry hadn't asked Cho to the ball. He and Ron were getting very nervous now, though as Harry pointed out, Ron would look much less stupid than he would without a partner; Harry was supposed to be starting the dancing with the other champions. â€Å"I suppose there's always Moaning Myrtle,† he said gloomily, referring to the ghost who haunted the girls' toilets on the second floor. â€Å"Harry – we've just got to grit our teeth and do it,† said Ron on Friday morning, in a tone that suggested they were planning the storming of an impregnable fortress. â€Å"When we get back to the common room tonight, we'll both have partners – agreed?† â€Å"Er†¦okay,† said Harry. But every time he glimpsed Cho that day – during break, and then lunchtime, and once on the way to History of Magic – she was surrounded by friends. Didn't she ever go anywhere alone? Could he perhaps ambush her as she was going into a bathroom? But no – she even seemed to go there with an escort of four or five girls. Yet if he didn't do it soon, she was bound to have been asked by somebody else. He found it hard to concentrate on Snape's Potions test, and consequently forgot to add the key ingredient – a bezoar – meaning that he received bottom marks. He didn't care, though; he was too busy screwing up his courage for what he was about to do. When the bell rang, he grabbed his bag, and hurried to the dungeon door. â€Å"I'll meet you at dinner,† he said to Ron and Hermione, and he dashed off upstairs. He'd just have to ask Cho for a private word, that was all†¦.He hurried off through the packed corridors looking for her, and (rather sooner than he had expected) he found her, emerging from a Defense Against the Dark Arts lesson. â€Å"Er – Cho? Could I have a word with you?† Giggling should be made illegal. Harry thought furiously, as all the girls around Cho started doing it. She didn't, though. She said, â€Å"Okay,† and followed him out of earshot other classmates. Harry turned to look at her and his stomach gave a weird lurch as though he had missed a step going downstairs. â€Å"Er,† he said. He couldn't ask her. He couldn't. But he had to. Cho stood there looking puzzled, watching him. The words came out before Harry had quite got his tongue around them. â€Å"Wangoballwime?† â€Å"Sorry?† said Cho. â€Å"D'you – d'you want to go to the ball with me?† said Harry. Why did he have to go red now? Why? â€Å"Oh!† said Cho, and she went red too. â€Å"Oh Harry, I'm really sorry,† and she truly looked it. â€Å"I've already said I'll go with someone else.† â€Å"Oh,† said Harry. It was odd; a moment before his insides had been writhing like snakes, but suddenly he didn't seem to have any insides at all. â€Å"Oh okay,† he said, â€Å"no problem.† â€Å"I'm really sorry,† she said again. â€Å"That's okay,† said Harry. They stood there looking at each other, and then Cho said, â€Å"Well -â€Å" â€Å"Yeah,† said Harry. â€Å"Well, ‘bye,† said Cho, still very red. She walked away. Harry called after her, before he could stop himself. â€Å"Who're you going with?† â€Å"Oh – Cedric,† she said. â€Å"Cedric Diggory.† â€Å"Oh right,† said Harry. His insides had come back again. It felt as though they had been filled with lead in their absence. Completely forgetting about dinner, he walked slowly back up to Gryffindor Tower, Cho's voice echoing in his ears with every step he took. â€Å"Cedric – Cedric Diggory.† He had been starting to quite like Cedric – prepared to overlook the fact that he had once beaten him at Quidditch, and was handsome, and popular, and nearly everyone's favorite champion. Now he suddenly realized that Cedric was in fact a useless pretty boy who didn't have enough brains to fill an eggcup. â€Å"Fairy lights,† he said dully to the Fat Lady – the password had been changed the previous day. â€Å"Yes, indeed, dear!† she trilled, straightening her new tinsel hair band as she swung forward to admit him. Entering the common room, Harry looked around, and to his surprise he saw Ron sitting ashen-faced in a distant corner. Ginny was sitting with him, talking to him in what seemed to be a low, soothing voice. â€Å"What's up, Ron?† said Harry, joining them. Ron looked up at Harry, a sort of blind horror in his face. â€Å"Why did I do it?† he said wildly. â€Å"I don't know what made me do it! â€Å"What?† said Harry. â€Å"He – er – just asked Fleur Delacour to go to the ball with him,† said Ginny. She looked as though she was fighting back a smile, but she kept patting Ron's arm sympathetically. â€Å"You what?' said Harry. â€Å"I don't know what made me do it!† Ron gasped again. â€Å"What was I playing at? There were people – all around – I've gone mad – everyone watching! I was just walking past her in the entrance hall – she was standing there talking to Diggory – and it sort of came over me – and I asked her!† Ron moaned and put his face in his hands. He kept talking, though the words were barely distinguishable. â€Å"She looked at me like I was a sea slug or something. Didn't even answer. And then – I dunno – I just sort of came to my senses and ran for it.† â€Å"She's part veela,† said Harry. â€Å"You were right – her grandmother was one. It wasn't your fault, I bet you just walked past when she was turning on the old charm for Diggory and got a blast of it – but she was wasting her time. He's going with Cho Chang.† Ron looked up. â€Å"I asked her to go with me just now,† Harry said dully, â€Å"and she told me.† Ginny had suddenly stopped smiling. â€Å"This is mad,† said Ron. â€Å"We're the only ones left who haven't got anyone – well, except Neville. Hey – guess who he asked? Hermione!† â€Å"What?† said Harry, completely distracted by this startling news. â€Å"Yeah, I know!† said Ron, some of the color coming back into his face as he started to laugh. â€Å"He told me after Potions! Said she's always been really nice, helping him out with work and stuff- but she told him she was already going with someone. Ha! As if! She just didn't want to go with Neville†¦I mean, who would?† â€Å"Don't!† said Ginny, annoyed. â€Å"Don't laugh -â€Å" Just then Hermione climbed in through the portrait hole. â€Å"Why weren't you two at dinner?† she said, coming over to join them. â€Å"Because – oh shut up laughing, you two – because they've both just been turned down by girls they asked to the ball!† said Ginny. That shut Harry and Ron up. â€Å"Thanks a bunch, Ginny,† said Ron sourly. â€Å"All the good-looking ones taken, Ron?† said Hermione loftily. â€Å"Eloise Midgen starting to look quite pretty now, is she? Well, I'm sure you'll find someone somewhere who'll have you.† But Ron was staring at Hermione as though suddenly seeing her in a whole new light. â€Å"Hermione, Neville's right – you are a girl†¦.† â€Å"Oh well spotted,† she said acidly. â€Å"Well – you can come with one of us!† â€Å"No, I can't,† snapped Hermione. â€Å"Oh come on,† he said impatiently, â€Å"we need partners, we're going to look really stupid if we haven't got any, everyone else has†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"I can't come with you,† said Hermione, now blushing, â€Å"because I'm already going with someone.† â€Å"No, you're not!† said Ron. â€Å"You just said that to get rid of Neville!† â€Å"Oh did I?† said Hermione, and her eyes flashed dangerously. â€Å"Just because it's taken you three years to notice, Ron, doesn't mean no one else has spotted I'm a girl!† Ron stared at her. Then he grinned again. â€Å"Okay, okay, we know you're a girl,† he said. â€Å"That do? Will you come now?† â€Å"I've already told you!† Hermione said very angrily. â€Å"I'm going with someone else!† And she stormed off toward the girls' dormitories again. â€Å"She's lying,† said Ron flatly, watching her go. â€Å"She's not,† said Ginny quietly. â€Å"Who is it then?† said Ron sharply. â€Å"I'm not telling you, it's her business,† said Ginny. â€Å"Right,† said Ron, who looked extremely put out, â€Å"this is getting stupid. Ginny, you can go with Harry, and I'll just -â€Å" â€Å"I can't,† said Ginny, and she went scarlet too. â€Å"I'm going with – with Neville. He asked me when Hermione said no, and I thought†¦well†¦I'm not going to be able to go otherwise, I'm not in fourth year.† She looked extremely miserable. â€Å"I think I'll go and have dinner,† she said, and she got up and walked off to the portrait hole, her head bowed. Ron goggled at Harry. â€Å"What's got into them?† he demanded. But Harry had just seen Parvati and Lavender come in through the portrait hole. The time had come for drastic action. â€Å"Wait here,† he said to Ron, and he stood up, walked straight up to Parvati, and said, â€Å"Parvati? Will you go to the ball with me?† Parvati went into a fit of giggles. Harry waited for them to subside, his fingers crossed in the pocket of his robes. â€Å"Yes, all right then,† she said finally, blushing furiously. â€Å"Thanks,† said Harry, in relief. â€Å"Lavender – will you go with Ron?† â€Å"She's going with Seamus,† said Parvati, and the pair of them giggled harder than ever. Harry sighed. â€Å"Can't you think of anyone who'd go with Ron?† he said, lowering his voice so that Ron wouldn't hear. â€Å"What about Hermione Granger?† said Parvati. â€Å"She's going with someone else.† Parvati looked astonished. â€Å"Ooooh – who?† she said keenly. Harry shrugged. â€Å"No idea,† he said. â€Å"So what about Ron?† â€Å"Well†¦Ã¢â‚¬  said Parvati slowly, â€Å"I suppose my sister might†¦Padma, you know†¦in Ravenclaw. I'll ask her if you like.† â€Å"Yeah, that would be great,† said Harry. â€Å"Let me know, will you?† And he went back over to Ron, feeling that this ball was a lot more trouble than it was worth, and hoping very much that Padma Patil's nose was dead center.

Biochemical Action of Bacteria

To observe the growth of different bacteria species in term of structures and its morphology based on different chemical substance applied. 3. To observe physiological and immunological properties utilized by different species of bacteria. INTRODUCTION: Bacteria biochemical testing can determine the types and numbers in terms of colony forming units of bacteria present in a sample of different chemical. The testing could be focused on a specific type of bacteria, medical bacteria or a broad range of environmental bacteria. Since bacteria are present in virtually any environment, it’s important to be clear why the testing is being performed. The more specific the testing is the better and the easier it is to interpret the results. Numbers and types of bacteria that should be a cause for concern depends upon several factors, including the type of bacteria present and the type of samples. Escherichia coli  are one of the main species of bacteria living in the lower intestines of mammals. E. coli  can be found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. The presence of  E. coli  in foods is considered to be an indication of fecal contamination. Staphylococcus  organisms are commonly found in the environment. Several species of  Staphylococcus  are found on the skin, intestines, nasal passages, etc. of warm-blooded animals. Some species of  Staphylococcus, particularly  Staphylococcus aureus  can be pathogenic are capable of causing illness. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is widely distributed in soil, water and plants. It survives in hot tubs, whirlpools, contact lens solution, sinks and showers. It can cause a number of opportunistic infections including infections of the skin, external ear canal and of the eye. Nitrifying bacteria recycle organic nitrogenous materials from ammonium (the endpoint for the decomposition of proteins) to nitrates. Their presence can indicate that the water may have been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites and is undergoing an aerobic form of degradation. The presence of denitrifying bacteria can indicate that the water has been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites. MATERIALS: 1. Nutrient broth cultures of Escherichia coli . Nutrient broth cultures of Serratia marcescens 3. Nutrient broth cultures of Salmonella typhimurium 4. Nutrient broth cultures of Bacillus subtilis 5. Nutrient broth cultures of Klebsiella spp. 6. Nutrient broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. 7. Nutrient broth cultures of Staphylococcus aurieus 8. Nutrient broth cultures of Proteus vulgaris 9. Nutri ent broth cultures of Pseudomonas fluorescens 10. Parafilm tape 11. Inoculating loops 12. Gloves 13. Incubator 14. Nutrient agar plate 15. Nutrient agar slants 16. Starch agar plates 17. Gelatine agar plates 18. 2 tubes Clark’s-Lub medium (MR-VP medium) 19. Tryptone broth 20. 3 Kigler’ slant 21. 5 tubes nitrate broth ( 0. 1% KNO3) 22. 5 urea broth 23. Tube containing 10ml of sterile saline 24. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 25. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 26. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 27. Gram’s iodine 28. Kovac’s indol reagent 29. Mercuric chloride solution 30. KOH-creatine solution or 40% KOH 31. FR reagent 32. Nessler’s reagent PROCEDURE: A. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 1. Fermentation of sugars Materials: 1. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 2. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 3. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 4. 18 hour nutrient broth cultures of E. coli and S. typhimurium Procedure: 1) The small bottles of different sugars were inoculated with a loopfuls of E. coli and Salmonella spp. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubate at 37oC for 24 hours 3) All observations were recorded for presence of acid or gas production. 2. Hydrolysis of starch Materials: 1. Starch agar plates 2. Broth agar cultures of B. subtilis and E. coli Procedure: 1) Starch plate was streaked with E. coli in for sections and repeated for B. ubtilis bacteria in other starch plate. 2) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and inoculated at 37oC for 24 hours. The following day 1) The plates were tested for starch hydrolysis by flooding the pates with Gram’s iodine. 2) The plates were examined and the colonies that showed clear uncoloured zones in contrast with the blue-black background of the starch-iodine complex were noted. 3) The extent of the zones of hydrolysis indicated either the reddish colour zones were seen. 4) All results and observations were recorded. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM 1. Indole test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. ubtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 tubes of tryptone broth 3. Kovac’s indole test reagent Procedures: 1) The peptone water was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were added with a few drops of Kovac’s indole reagent (dimethylaminobenzaldehyde) 2) The red or dark color indicates the presence of indole. 4. Hydrogen sulphide Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 Kigler’s slant Procedures: 1) The Kigler’s slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism by the stab method. ) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 3) Th e Kigler’ slant was observed for production of H2S where the black precipitate along the line of growth in the Kigler’s slants indicated the H2S have been produced. 4) The observations were recorded. 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. Gelatine agar plates 3. Mercuric chloride solution Procedures: 3) The gelatine agar plates were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism with a single streak at the centre of the plates. ) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 5) The plates were flooded with mercuric chloride solution. 6) The medium become opaque in regions that still contain gelatine and clear regions where gelatine has been hydrolysed. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, and Klebsiella spp. 2. 2 tubes of Clark-Lub’s medium (MR-VP medium) 3. KOH-creatine solution Procedures: 1) The tubes of Clark-Lubâ€⠄¢s medium (MR-VP medium) were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with Voges-Proskauer test. 2) The 0. 5ml of KOH-creatine solutuin was addd. 3) The tube was shaked vigorously for 30 seconds. 4) The red or pink color indicates the presence of acetoin. D. CATALASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus. 2. Nutrient agar slant Procedures: 1) The nutrient agar slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with catalase test by adding several drops of a 5% solution of hydrogen peroxide. ) The vigorous bubbling indicates the presence of oxygen. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, Proteus vugaris, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas fluorescens. 2. 5 tubes containing nitrate broth (0. 1% KNO3) 3. Nitrate test reagent Procedures: 1) The nitrate broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incub ated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with 1ml of Follet and Ratcliff’s (FR reagent) 2) The orange or brown color indicates the presence of nitrate. 3) The absent of nitrate indicates that: a. There has been no nitrate reduction b. The reduction has proceeded beyond that nitrate stage. 4) The absent of orange or brown color were further tested with small amount of cadmium to the tube. If nitrate still present, it will be catalytically change to nitrate which will then reacts with the FR reagent in the tube. 5) In the absent of a positive nitrate result, the bubbles f H2 gas was observed in the Durhams tube OR 6) The samples were tested with 1ml of Nessler’s reagent. The brown or orange color indicates the presence of ammonia. F. UREASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, P. vugaris, S. arcescens, P. fluorescens. 2. 5 urea broth with indicator Procedures: 1) The urea broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The urease-positive organism produced in intense red/purple coloration of the medium after incubation. 2) All observations were recorded. RESULTS AND OBSERVATION: Test| Observation(After 24 hours incubation)| Description| A. Carbohydrate Test 1. Fermentation of starchDurham tubes and phenol-red indicator. 2. Hydrolysis of starch| Glucose: Lactose: Sucrose: Starch agar plates:B. ubtilisE. coli| * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * No gas produced by S. typhimium because the tube turns red. * No gas produced by E. coli because the tube is slightly red. * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive zone of clearing. * Negative zone of clearing. | B. Protein And Amino Acid Metabolism 1. Indole test 2. Hydrogen disulphide 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test| Tryptone broth:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimuriumKigler’s slant:B. subtilisE. oli. S. typhimuriumGelatine agar plates:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimurium| * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Bright fuschia at the interface is positive test for Indole . * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Black precipitate form shows positive sulphur reduction. * Negative reaction. * Positive reaction forming the black precipitate. * Positive hydrolysis of gelatine into amino acid to be used as nutrients/gelatinase. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine| C. Voges- Proskaeur’s Test| MR-VP medium:E. coli. Klebsiella spp. | * Negative results of E. oli * Positive results Klebsiella spp. | D. Catalase Test| Nutrient agar slant:S. aureusStreptococcus spp. | S. aureus * Positive catalase reaction because present of bubblesStreptococcus spp. * Negative catalase reaction no bubbles present. | E. Nitrate Reduction Test| Nitrate broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. fluorenscens| * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * Turns red. Positive nitrate test shows nitrate reductase present. * Turns red but negative catalase test. | F. Urease Test| Urea broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. luorenscens| * Negative urease test because the tube remain purple. * P. vulgaris show positive urease test from yellow to pinkish. * S. marcescens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. * P. fluorenscens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. | DISCUSSION: Biochemical tests of bacteria oobjectively to test the metabolism of carbohydrate and related products of different bacteria species, test specific breakdown of products through color changes and gas produced. Besides that, the ability of bacteria utilizes a specific substance and the metabolism of protein and amino acid by bacteria. A. CARBOHYDRATE TEST Carbohydrate is an organic compound that consists of only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which is basically the major carbon source of most organisms. Specific carbohydrate can be fermented by organism that incorporated in a medium producing red or acid with gas. Pinkish red color shows positive results where acidic content formed in the tube because carbon dioxide realised if fermentation occur. Negative catabolism of carbohydrate shows by yellow to colourless of Durham’s tube as the solution remain alkaline in the absent of carbon dioxide gas. Gas production can be seen as bubbles in Durham’s tube. Central carbohydrate metabolism or the breakdown of sugars into smaller compounds accompanied by the production of ATP and reduction of coenzymes, follows one of several pathway. Carbohydrate utilization and fermentation will be assessed by growing cells without shaking (aeration) in defined media containing a single carbohydrate. Acid products of sugar fermentation will cause a noticeable color change in the pH indicator included in the medium. Sugar fermentation does not produce alkaline product, however non-fermentative hydrolysis of amino acids in the peptone, present in most fermentation media, may give an alkaline reaction, which will also cause a color change in the pH indicator. Gas production, H2 in particular, can be determined by placing a small, inverted Durham tube in the test medium. If gas is produced, it is trapped in the Durham tube and can be seen as a bubble. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is produced by bacterial anaerobic degradation of the two sulfur-containing amino acids, cysteine and methionine. Hydrogen sulfide is released as a by-product when carbon and nitrogen atoms in the amino acids are consumed as nutrients by the cells. Under anaerobic conditions the sulfhydryl (-SH) group on cysteine is reduced by cysteine desulfurase. Ferrous ammonium sulfate-indicator. H2S reacts with ferrous sulfate forming the black precipitate Sodium thiosulfate is reduced to sulphite/thiosulfate The Kligler’s Iron test is used to detect liberation of H2S gas by bacteria growing on an excess of these sulfur-containing amino acids. The agar contains high levels of peptones or sources of cysteine and methionine and ferrous sulfate as an indicator. When H2S is produced, the ferrous ion reacts with it to give ferrous sulfide, an insoluble black precipitate. In starch hydrolysis test Iodine must be on the plate to visualize the zone of clearing surrounding the bacteria. This zone indicates starch was broken down to dextrins, maltose, and glucose. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM Indole test measures the ability of bacteria to split indole from tryptophan molecule but in term of biochemistry, Indole test is one of the metabolic degradation products of the amino acid tryophan. Bacteria that possess the enzyme trytophanase are capable of hydrolysing and deaminating tryptophan with the production of Indole, pyruvic acid and ammonia. Positive reaction showed by E. coli, P. vulgaris and negative results observed in Klebsiella and Salmonella from observation in the Indole test. Development of fuchsia red color at the interface of the reagent and the broth within seconds after adding the reagent is indicative of the presence of Indole and is a positive test. Kovac’s reagent detects if tryptophan has been hydrolyzed to indol or tryptophanase. Gelatin is the protein derived from the animal protein collagen, has been used as a solidifying agent in food for a long time besides nutrient gelatine as an early type of solid growth medium. One problem is that many bacteria have the ability to hydrolyze or liquefy the gelatin. This gelatin liquefaction ability forms the basis for this test. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST The production of acetoin by bacteria is perform through Voges Proskauer Test to determine the ability of the organisms to produce neutral end product acetyl methyl carbinol (acetoin) from glucose fermentation. Negative results gained from E. coli meanwhile positive reaction gives by. Changing of color to red pinkish color at the surface of the medium indicated positive results and yellow color at the surface of the medium show negative reaction. The KOH reagent should not be excessively added to the sample because excess KOH may mask weak VP positive reactions. The MR test will be positive for organisms that have complete pathways for mixed acid fermentation. The Voges-Proskauer (VP) test determines whether a specific neutral metabolic intermediate, acetoin, has been produced instead of acid from glucose. Acetoin is the last intermediate in the butanediol pathway, which is a common fermentation pathway in B. subtilis. The tests are complementary in the sense that often a bacterium will give a positive reaction for one test and a negative reaction for the other. The three possible patterns of results where the acetoin fermentation pathway, detected by the VP test, two molecules of pyruvate condense and two molecules of CO2 are released. The 4 carbon intermediate that is formed, acetoin, contains a carbonyl group. The acetoin acts as a terminal electron acceptor with the carbonyl group being reduced to a hydroxyl group. The reduced product, butanediol, is excreted by the bacteria and acetoin is oxidized to diacetyl by alkaline -naphthol, which forms a red complex with creatinine. D. CATALASE TEST Catalase is present in most cytochrome containing aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria except Streptococcus spp. Hydrogen peroxide forms as one of the oxidative end product of aerobic carbohydrate metabolism. If hydrogen peroxide allowed accumulating in the bacterial cells it becomes lethal to the bacteria. Catalases help in converting H2O2 to water and oxygen. In the catalase test performed, Streptococcus spp gives negative reaction as for S. aureus, the positive reaction occurred. One of the by-products of oxidation-reduction in the presence of O2 during aerobic respiration is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). This compound is highly reactive and must be degraded in the cytoplasm of the cell producing it. It can be especially damaging to molecules of DNA. Most aerobes synthesize the enzyme catalase, which breaks down H2O2 into water and oxygen. The O2 gas is identified by the production of bubbles from a concentrated cell suspension. The test for catalase is simple and usually very reliable. It is a major method of distinguishing between Staphylococcus (catalase positive), Streptococcus (catalase negative), and Enterococcus (catalase negative), although some strains of Enterococcus faecalis may be positive. Catalase production is generally associated with aerobic organisms, since H2O2 is a toxic by-product of aerobic growth, but not always. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Nitrate reduction test basically test the ability of organism to reduce the nitrate to nitrites of free nitrogen gas. In order to determine either the bacteria can reduce nitrate, the test organism is inoculated into nitrate reduction broth, undefined medium that contains large amounts of nitrate (KNO3). After incubation, reagent added simultaneously reacts with nitrite and turn to red color, indicating a positive nitrate reduction. If there is no color change at this step, nitrite is absent. If the nitrate is unreduced and till in its original form, this would be a negative nitrate reduction result. However it is possible that the nitrate was reduced to nitrite but has been further reduced to ammonia or nitrogen gas. This would be recorded as positive nitrate reduction result. Under anaerobic conditions, some bacteria are able to use nitrate (NO3-) as an external terminal electron acceptor. This kind of metabolism is analogous to the use of oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor by aerobic organisms and is called anaerobic respiration. Nitrate is an oxidized compound and there are several steps possible in its reduction. The initial step is the reduction of nitrate (NO3-) to nitrite (NO2-). Several possible products can be made from further reduction of nitrite. Possible reduced end products include the following N2, NH3 (ammonia), N2O (nitrous oxide). Bacteria vary in their ability to perform these reactions, a useful characteristic for identification. A medium that will support growth must be used and the cells must be grown anaerobically. Growth in the presence of oxygen will decrease or eliminate nitrate reduction. There are many possible end products of nitrate reduction such as nitrite, nitrogen gas (N2), nitrous oxides, ammonia, and hydroxylamine. The disappearance of nitrate or the appearance of the end products. The test relies on the production of nitrous acid from the nitrite. This, in turn, reacts with the iodide in the reagent to produce iodine. The iodine then reacts with the starch in the reagent to produce a blue color. Since some of the possible products of NO3- reduction are gaseous, a Durham tube is sometimes inverted in the culture tube to trap gases. This being the case, it is important to pre-test the medium to ensure no detectable nitrite is present at the beginning, and, in the case of a negative test, to reduce any nitrate to nitrite to determine whether the nitrite was also reduced. If nitrite is produced, it reacts with hemoglobin to give a bright red color, instead of the dark red color of hemoglobin. It is this reaction that is responsible for the color of meats, such as hot dogs, which are preserved with sodium nitrite. The blood agar test has the advantage of no color change occurring if the nitrite is further reduced. F. UREASE TEST Urease test mainly highlighted to determine the ability of the organism to split urea forming 2 molecules of ammonia by the action of the enzyme Urease with resulting alkalinity. Negative reaction shown by E. coli meanwhile Klebsiella spp. shows positive result. Extra precaution needed because both the urease test medium depend upon the demonstration of alkalinity that not specific for urease. Moreover the protein hydrolysis may result I alkalinity hence false positive may be seen in Pseudomonas. The false positivity can be eliminated by control test using the same medium without urea as recommendation. Urea is a nitrogenous waste product of animals. Some bacteria can cleaved it to produce carbon dioxide and ammonia. The ammonia is a nitrogen source for amino acid biosynthesis as well as for synthesis of other nitrogen-containing molecules in the cell. The urease test was devised to distinguish Proteus species from other enterics. The medium described here is buffered enough so that weak urease producers appear negative. The production of ammonia raises the pH of the medium. The indicator phenol red is present in the broth. Phenol red is orange-yellow at pH below than 6. 8, and turns bright pinkish-red at pH higher than 8. 1. Hence, a positive urea test is denoted by the change of medium color from yellow to pinkish red. CONCLUSION: Based on the laboratory, different bacteria species have different abilities to metabolize various substrates and end products formed were able to be observed and distinguished. Biochemical Action of Bacteria To observe the growth of different bacteria species in term of structures and its morphology based on different chemical substance applied. 3. To observe physiological and immunological properties utilized by different species of bacteria. INTRODUCTION: Bacteria biochemical testing can determine the types and numbers in terms of colony forming units of bacteria present in a sample of different chemical. The testing could be focused on a specific type of bacteria, medical bacteria or a broad range of environmental bacteria. Since bacteria are present in virtually any environment, it’s important to be clear why the testing is being performed. The more specific the testing is the better and the easier it is to interpret the results. Numbers and types of bacteria that should be a cause for concern depends upon several factors, including the type of bacteria present and the type of samples. Escherichia coli  are one of the main species of bacteria living in the lower intestines of mammals. E. coli  can be found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. The presence of  E. coli  in foods is considered to be an indication of fecal contamination. Staphylococcus  organisms are commonly found in the environment. Several species of  Staphylococcus  are found on the skin, intestines, nasal passages, etc. of warm-blooded animals. Some species of  Staphylococcus, particularly  Staphylococcus aureus  can be pathogenic are capable of causing illness. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is widely distributed in soil, water and plants. It survives in hot tubs, whirlpools, contact lens solution, sinks and showers. It can cause a number of opportunistic infections including infections of the skin, external ear canal and of the eye. Nitrifying bacteria recycle organic nitrogenous materials from ammonium (the endpoint for the decomposition of proteins) to nitrates. Their presence can indicate that the water may have been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites and is undergoing an aerobic form of degradation. The presence of denitrifying bacteria can indicate that the water has been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites. MATERIALS: 1. Nutrient broth cultures of Escherichia coli . Nutrient broth cultures of Serratia marcescens 3. Nutrient broth cultures of Salmonella typhimurium 4. Nutrient broth cultures of Bacillus subtilis 5. Nutrient broth cultures of Klebsiella spp. 6. Nutrient broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. 7. Nutrient broth cultures of Staphylococcus aurieus 8. Nutrient broth cultures of Proteus vulgaris 9. Nutri ent broth cultures of Pseudomonas fluorescens 10. Parafilm tape 11. Inoculating loops 12. Gloves 13. Incubator 14. Nutrient agar plate 15. Nutrient agar slants 16. Starch agar plates 17. Gelatine agar plates 18. 2 tubes Clark’s-Lub medium (MR-VP medium) 19. Tryptone broth 20. 3 Kigler’ slant 21. 5 tubes nitrate broth ( 0. 1% KNO3) 22. 5 urea broth 23. Tube containing 10ml of sterile saline 24. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 25. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 26. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 27. Gram’s iodine 28. Kovac’s indol reagent 29. Mercuric chloride solution 30. KOH-creatine solution or 40% KOH 31. FR reagent 32. Nessler’s reagent PROCEDURE: A. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 1. Fermentation of sugars Materials: 1. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 2. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 3. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 4. 18 hour nutrient broth cultures of E. coli and S. typhimurium Procedure: 1) The small bottles of different sugars were inoculated with a loopfuls of E. coli and Salmonella spp. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubate at 37oC for 24 hours 3) All observations were recorded for presence of acid or gas production. 2. Hydrolysis of starch Materials: 1. Starch agar plates 2. Broth agar cultures of B. subtilis and E. coli Procedure: 1) Starch plate was streaked with E. coli in for sections and repeated for B. ubtilis bacteria in other starch plate. 2) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and inoculated at 37oC for 24 hours. The following day 1) The plates were tested for starch hydrolysis by flooding the pates with Gram’s iodine. 2) The plates were examined and the colonies that showed clear uncoloured zones in contrast with the blue-black background of the starch-iodine complex were noted. 3) The extent of the zones of hydrolysis indicated either the reddish colour zones were seen. 4) All results and observations were recorded. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM 1. Indole test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. ubtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 tubes of tryptone broth 3. Kovac’s indole test reagent Procedures: 1) The peptone water was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were added with a few drops of Kovac’s indole reagent (dimethylaminobenzaldehyde) 2) The red or dark color indicates the presence of indole. 4. Hydrogen sulphide Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 Kigler’s slant Procedures: 1) The Kigler’s slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism by the stab method. ) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 3) Th e Kigler’ slant was observed for production of H2S where the black precipitate along the line of growth in the Kigler’s slants indicated the H2S have been produced. 4) The observations were recorded. 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. Gelatine agar plates 3. Mercuric chloride solution Procedures: 3) The gelatine agar plates were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism with a single streak at the centre of the plates. ) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 5) The plates were flooded with mercuric chloride solution. 6) The medium become opaque in regions that still contain gelatine and clear regions where gelatine has been hydrolysed. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, and Klebsiella spp. 2. 2 tubes of Clark-Lub’s medium (MR-VP medium) 3. KOH-creatine solution Procedures: 1) The tubes of Clark-Lubâ€⠄¢s medium (MR-VP medium) were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with Voges-Proskauer test. 2) The 0. 5ml of KOH-creatine solutuin was addd. 3) The tube was shaked vigorously for 30 seconds. 4) The red or pink color indicates the presence of acetoin. D. CATALASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus. 2. Nutrient agar slant Procedures: 1) The nutrient agar slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with catalase test by adding several drops of a 5% solution of hydrogen peroxide. ) The vigorous bubbling indicates the presence of oxygen. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, Proteus vugaris, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas fluorescens. 2. 5 tubes containing nitrate broth (0. 1% KNO3) 3. Nitrate test reagent Procedures: 1) The nitrate broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incub ated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with 1ml of Follet and Ratcliff’s (FR reagent) 2) The orange or brown color indicates the presence of nitrate. 3) The absent of nitrate indicates that: a. There has been no nitrate reduction b. The reduction has proceeded beyond that nitrate stage. 4) The absent of orange or brown color were further tested with small amount of cadmium to the tube. If nitrate still present, it will be catalytically change to nitrate which will then reacts with the FR reagent in the tube. 5) In the absent of a positive nitrate result, the bubbles f H2 gas was observed in the Durhams tube OR 6) The samples were tested with 1ml of Nessler’s reagent. The brown or orange color indicates the presence of ammonia. F. UREASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, P. vugaris, S. arcescens, P. fluorescens. 2. 5 urea broth with indicator Procedures: 1) The urea broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The urease-positive organism produced in intense red/purple coloration of the medium after incubation. 2) All observations were recorded. RESULTS AND OBSERVATION: Test| Observation(After 24 hours incubation)| Description| A. Carbohydrate Test 1. Fermentation of starchDurham tubes and phenol-red indicator. 2. Hydrolysis of starch| Glucose: Lactose: Sucrose: Starch agar plates:B. ubtilisE. coli| * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * No gas produced by S. typhimium because the tube turns red. * No gas produced by E. coli because the tube is slightly red. * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive zone of clearing. * Negative zone of clearing. | B. Protein And Amino Acid Metabolism 1. Indole test 2. Hydrogen disulphide 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test| Tryptone broth:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimuriumKigler’s slant:B. subtilisE. oli. S. typhimuriumGelatine agar plates:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimurium| * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Bright fuschia at the interface is positive test for Indole . * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Black precipitate form shows positive sulphur reduction. * Negative reaction. * Positive reaction forming the black precipitate. * Positive hydrolysis of gelatine into amino acid to be used as nutrients/gelatinase. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine| C. Voges- Proskaeur’s Test| MR-VP medium:E. coli. Klebsiella spp. | * Negative results of E. oli * Positive results Klebsiella spp. | D. Catalase Test| Nutrient agar slant:S. aureusStreptococcus spp. | S. aureus * Positive catalase reaction because present of bubblesStreptococcus spp. * Negative catalase reaction no bubbles present. | E. Nitrate Reduction Test| Nitrate broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. fluorenscens| * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * Turns red. Positive nitrate test shows nitrate reductase present. * Turns red but negative catalase test. | F. Urease Test| Urea broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. luorenscens| * Negative urease test because the tube remain purple. * P. vulgaris show positive urease test from yellow to pinkish. * S. marcescens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. * P. fluorenscens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. | DISCUSSION: Biochemical tests of bacteria oobjectively to test the metabolism of carbohydrate and related products of different bacteria species, test specific breakdown of products through color changes and gas produced. Besides that, the ability of bacteria utilizes a specific substance and the metabolism of protein and amino acid by bacteria. A. CARBOHYDRATE TEST Carbohydrate is an organic compound that consists of only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which is basically the major carbon source of most organisms. Specific carbohydrate can be fermented by organism that incorporated in a medium producing red or acid with gas. Pinkish red color shows positive results where acidic content formed in the tube because carbon dioxide realised if fermentation occur. Negative catabolism of carbohydrate shows by yellow to colourless of Durham’s tube as the solution remain alkaline in the absent of carbon dioxide gas. Gas production can be seen as bubbles in Durham’s tube. Central carbohydrate metabolism or the breakdown of sugars into smaller compounds accompanied by the production of ATP and reduction of coenzymes, follows one of several pathway. Carbohydrate utilization and fermentation will be assessed by growing cells without shaking (aeration) in defined media containing a single carbohydrate. Acid products of sugar fermentation will cause a noticeable color change in the pH indicator included in the medium. Sugar fermentation does not produce alkaline product, however non-fermentative hydrolysis of amino acids in the peptone, present in most fermentation media, may give an alkaline reaction, which will also cause a color change in the pH indicator. Gas production, H2 in particular, can be determined by placing a small, inverted Durham tube in the test medium. If gas is produced, it is trapped in the Durham tube and can be seen as a bubble. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is produced by bacterial anaerobic degradation of the two sulfur-containing amino acids, cysteine and methionine. Hydrogen sulfide is released as a by-product when carbon and nitrogen atoms in the amino acids are consumed as nutrients by the cells. Under anaerobic conditions the sulfhydryl (-SH) group on cysteine is reduced by cysteine desulfurase. Ferrous ammonium sulfate-indicator. H2S reacts with ferrous sulfate forming the black precipitate Sodium thiosulfate is reduced to sulphite/thiosulfate The Kligler’s Iron test is used to detect liberation of H2S gas by bacteria growing on an excess of these sulfur-containing amino acids. The agar contains high levels of peptones or sources of cysteine and methionine and ferrous sulfate as an indicator. When H2S is produced, the ferrous ion reacts with it to give ferrous sulfide, an insoluble black precipitate. In starch hydrolysis test Iodine must be on the plate to visualize the zone of clearing surrounding the bacteria. This zone indicates starch was broken down to dextrins, maltose, and glucose. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM Indole test measures the ability of bacteria to split indole from tryptophan molecule but in term of biochemistry, Indole test is one of the metabolic degradation products of the amino acid tryophan. Bacteria that possess the enzyme trytophanase are capable of hydrolysing and deaminating tryptophan with the production of Indole, pyruvic acid and ammonia. Positive reaction showed by E. coli, P. vulgaris and negative results observed in Klebsiella and Salmonella from observation in the Indole test. Development of fuchsia red color at the interface of the reagent and the broth within seconds after adding the reagent is indicative of the presence of Indole and is a positive test. Kovac’s reagent detects if tryptophan has been hydrolyzed to indol or tryptophanase. Gelatin is the protein derived from the animal protein collagen, has been used as a solidifying agent in food for a long time besides nutrient gelatine as an early type of solid growth medium. One problem is that many bacteria have the ability to hydrolyze or liquefy the gelatin. This gelatin liquefaction ability forms the basis for this test. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST The production of acetoin by bacteria is perform through Voges Proskauer Test to determine the ability of the organisms to produce neutral end product acetyl methyl carbinol (acetoin) from glucose fermentation. Negative results gained from E. coli meanwhile positive reaction gives by. Changing of color to red pinkish color at the surface of the medium indicated positive results and yellow color at the surface of the medium show negative reaction. The KOH reagent should not be excessively added to the sample because excess KOH may mask weak VP positive reactions. The MR test will be positive for organisms that have complete pathways for mixed acid fermentation. The Voges-Proskauer (VP) test determines whether a specific neutral metabolic intermediate, acetoin, has been produced instead of acid from glucose. Acetoin is the last intermediate in the butanediol pathway, which is a common fermentation pathway in B. subtilis. The tests are complementary in the sense that often a bacterium will give a positive reaction for one test and a negative reaction for the other. The three possible patterns of results where the acetoin fermentation pathway, detected by the VP test, two molecules of pyruvate condense and two molecules of CO2 are released. The 4 carbon intermediate that is formed, acetoin, contains a carbonyl group. The acetoin acts as a terminal electron acceptor with the carbonyl group being reduced to a hydroxyl group. The reduced product, butanediol, is excreted by the bacteria and acetoin is oxidized to diacetyl by alkaline -naphthol, which forms a red complex with creatinine. D. CATALASE TEST Catalase is present in most cytochrome containing aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria except Streptococcus spp. Hydrogen peroxide forms as one of the oxidative end product of aerobic carbohydrate metabolism. If hydrogen peroxide allowed accumulating in the bacterial cells it becomes lethal to the bacteria. Catalases help in converting H2O2 to water and oxygen. In the catalase test performed, Streptococcus spp gives negative reaction as for S. aureus, the positive reaction occurred. One of the by-products of oxidation-reduction in the presence of O2 during aerobic respiration is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). This compound is highly reactive and must be degraded in the cytoplasm of the cell producing it. It can be especially damaging to molecules of DNA. Most aerobes synthesize the enzyme catalase, which breaks down H2O2 into water and oxygen. The O2 gas is identified by the production of bubbles from a concentrated cell suspension. The test for catalase is simple and usually very reliable. It is a major method of distinguishing between Staphylococcus (catalase positive), Streptococcus (catalase negative), and Enterococcus (catalase negative), although some strains of Enterococcus faecalis may be positive. Catalase production is generally associated with aerobic organisms, since H2O2 is a toxic by-product of aerobic growth, but not always. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Nitrate reduction test basically test the ability of organism to reduce the nitrate to nitrites of free nitrogen gas. In order to determine either the bacteria can reduce nitrate, the test organism is inoculated into nitrate reduction broth, undefined medium that contains large amounts of nitrate (KNO3). After incubation, reagent added simultaneously reacts with nitrite and turn to red color, indicating a positive nitrate reduction. If there is no color change at this step, nitrite is absent. If the nitrate is unreduced and till in its original form, this would be a negative nitrate reduction result. However it is possible that the nitrate was reduced to nitrite but has been further reduced to ammonia or nitrogen gas. This would be recorded as positive nitrate reduction result. Under anaerobic conditions, some bacteria are able to use nitrate (NO3-) as an external terminal electron acceptor. This kind of metabolism is analogous to the use of oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor by aerobic organisms and is called anaerobic respiration. Nitrate is an oxidized compound and there are several steps possible in its reduction. The initial step is the reduction of nitrate (NO3-) to nitrite (NO2-). Several possible products can be made from further reduction of nitrite. Possible reduced end products include the following N2, NH3 (ammonia), N2O (nitrous oxide). Bacteria vary in their ability to perform these reactions, a useful characteristic for identification. A medium that will support growth must be used and the cells must be grown anaerobically. Growth in the presence of oxygen will decrease or eliminate nitrate reduction. There are many possible end products of nitrate reduction such as nitrite, nitrogen gas (N2), nitrous oxides, ammonia, and hydroxylamine. The disappearance of nitrate or the appearance of the end products. The test relies on the production of nitrous acid from the nitrite. This, in turn, reacts with the iodide in the reagent to produce iodine. The iodine then reacts with the starch in the reagent to produce a blue color. Since some of the possible products of NO3- reduction are gaseous, a Durham tube is sometimes inverted in the culture tube to trap gases. This being the case, it is important to pre-test the medium to ensure no detectable nitrite is present at the beginning, and, in the case of a negative test, to reduce any nitrate to nitrite to determine whether the nitrite was also reduced. If nitrite is produced, it reacts with hemoglobin to give a bright red color, instead of the dark red color of hemoglobin. It is this reaction that is responsible for the color of meats, such as hot dogs, which are preserved with sodium nitrite. The blood agar test has the advantage of no color change occurring if the nitrite is further reduced. F. UREASE TEST Urease test mainly highlighted to determine the ability of the organism to split urea forming 2 molecules of ammonia by the action of the enzyme Urease with resulting alkalinity. Negative reaction shown by E. coli meanwhile Klebsiella spp. shows positive result. Extra precaution needed because both the urease test medium depend upon the demonstration of alkalinity that not specific for urease. Moreover the protein hydrolysis may result I alkalinity hence false positive may be seen in Pseudomonas. The false positivity can be eliminated by control test using the same medium without urea as recommendation. Urea is a nitrogenous waste product of animals. Some bacteria can cleaved it to produce carbon dioxide and ammonia. The ammonia is a nitrogen source for amino acid biosynthesis as well as for synthesis of other nitrogen-containing molecules in the cell. The urease test was devised to distinguish Proteus species from other enterics. The medium described here is buffered enough so that weak urease producers appear negative. The production of ammonia raises the pH of the medium. The indicator phenol red is present in the broth. Phenol red is orange-yellow at pH below than 6. 8, and turns bright pinkish-red at pH higher than 8. 1. Hence, a positive urea test is denoted by the change of medium color from yellow to pinkish red. CONCLUSION: Based on the laboratory, different bacteria species have different abilities to metabolize various substrates and end products formed were able to be observed and distinguished.

Identify the various types and forms of child neglect, and discuss how Essay

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Energy Drinks Essay Example for Free

Energy Drinks Essay Introduction Sir Isaac Newton was right when he saidâ€Å"what goes up must come down† . This rings true when talking about energy drinks. These products promise to provide heightened awareness, more energy, more endurance some even reference to the consumer you will have wings. So when consuming these products what are you really drinking? Do they provide the energy boost they promise? Are they harmful? Should the FDA do more investigating into the safety of these so-called energy drinks? These are questions I had going into this as a consumer of energy drinks myself, I was interested in how harmful they are too the consumer. In this paper I hope to provide a better insight to a product that is popular and in demand; but little is known about. What Are You Drinking? Energy drinks contain most of the same major ingredients caffeine, taurine, glucronolactone, niacin and panax ginseng just to list a few. Let’s start with caffeine it is a central nervous system stimulant that has the effect of temporarily warding off drowsiness and restoring alertness. As of studies done by (Lovett, Richard) 90% of adults consume caffeine daily in different ways. Most of the energy from these drinks comes from the sugar and caffeine not the unnecessary extras (Suzanne Farrell MS, RD). Taurine another main ingredient is actually an amino acid that is found in the human body it is a natural substance that our bodily systems encounter every day. However in these energy drinks it is a synthetic element. Then there is Ginseng is known as an adaptogen, which means it increases resistance to physical, chemical, and biological stress and builds energy and general vitality. These are just a couple of the things in what seems to be in a lot of the energy drinks. The rest of the scientific sounding ingredients came up to be not relevant to the effects these drinks promise. |Beverage (250 ml) |Caffeine content | |Cocaine energy drink |280mg | |Full Throttle |144mg | |Monster |160mg | |Impulse |88 mg | |Red Bull |80 mg | |Naughty Boy |80mg | |V |78 mg | |Coca-Cola |48. 75 mg | Do These Drinks Provide The Effects They Promise? Most drinks provide some combination of B vitamins (which help convert sugar to energy and help regulate red blood cells, which deliver oxygen), amino acids (e. g. , taurine), antioxidants(milk thisle, vitamin C), and stimulants, ranging from the reliable (caffeine, guarana) to the alleged (horny goat weed). Yes, they do. Smit and colleagues found that energy drinks, as compared to placebo, had energizing effects among 18 to 55 year old participants, with effects being strongest 30 to 60 minutes after consumption and sustained at least 90 minutes. Caffeine was found to be the primary constituent responsible for these effects. Although there is no human requirement for caffeine, even low doses of caffeine (12. 5 to 100 mg) improve cognitive performance and mood (Smit HJ). Because this is still such an understudied topic it is hard to say that these drinks provide the effect they promise. The fact is caffeine affects everyone different due to age, size, tolerance, consumption and lack of sleep all these things contribute to how these drinks will affect you. Are They Harmful? This question was the one I was most interested in there is so much controversy around this question. Many energy drinks have a very high percentage of carbohydrates that can make it more difficult for food and nutrients to be absorbed into the bloodstream from the intestines. In some cases, gastrointestinal problems and distress are a possibility. When an energy drink has a high sugar content, it can have a laxative effect, as well as causing a sudden crash when the sugar leaves the bloodstream and the energy high disappears. Researchers found that within four hours of drinking various energy drinks, the 15 participants blood pressure rates increased approximately 10 percent for the systolic rate, 8 percent for the diastolic rate and heart rates increased 11 percent (Wayne state university study). When given to test rats in an experimental laboratory, it was found that the taurine caused anxiety, irritability, high sensitivity to noise, and self-mutilations. However, this data does not mean that the same effects will occur in humans the differences between rats and people are obviously substantial. That to me seems sort of scary. The Australian Consumers Association advises that while energy drinks may be scientifically safe, young people especially need to be aware of their contents. Research shows that children and young people who consume energy drinks may suffer sleep problems, bed-wetting and anxiety. Children who consume two or more cans of energy drinks a day may become irritable and anxious. Women who are pregnant are advised to avoid energy drinks (especially during the first three months of pregnancy), as high amounts of caffeine can increase the risk of miscarriage, difficult birth and delivery of low-weight babies. (Australian Consumers Association) Drinking these drinks while consuming alcohol can also be very harmful there have been reports of young people dying, possibly as a result of mixing of alcohol and energy drinks. Also Since the absorption of nutrients is slower; there is a large chance that the fluid absorption rate of the body is also slower. Difficulty in natural re-hydration of the body during workouts can cause danger to the person’s health. Athletes, who lose great quantities of fluids during games and practices, should be aware of this circumstance for they are one of the target markets of energy drinks. Should The FDA Do More Investigating As To The Safety Of Energy Drinks? Regulation of foods and drugs in the United States falls under the guidance of the Food and Drug Administration under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA). Functional foods, like energy drinks, may be regulated as foods, dietary supplements, drugs, medical foods or food for special dietary use. Though energy drinks have many of the same qualities as soft drinks, which are regulated as foods, they are regulated differently because the functional beverage industry is part of the trend of â€Å"nutraceutical foods† that occupies the gray area between food and dietary supplements. Dietary supplements are generally characterized as foods, despite their drug-like properties and their lack of testing on the market. The U. S. Food and Drug Administration have not conducted any serious investigations into the safety of energy drinks. As dietary supplements, energy drinks are subject to much less stringent regulations than other foodstuffs. However certain nations limit the locations that can sell energy drinks. Other countries require warning labels on individual cans of energy drinks. Still other countries have issued national statements regarding their safety. Some countries, such as Canada, have not yet approved certain energy drinks for sale. So shouldn’t the FDA take a closer look as to how these drinks are labeled and marketed and shouldn’t there be more investigating as to its effects on their consumer. Conclusion As a consumer of at least two if not more monster energy drinks a day I found the information was good to know. I do think that the FDA needs to make it where they do inform the consumer of the risks on the label especially because these drinks are very popular in teens. After all that I found I find it interesting that the public is so misinformed about all the ingredients in these drinks because really the caffeine is what is giving them the boost not all the scientific sounding ingredients. I think that it is most important for consumers to know that when taking in such high levels of caffeine you will go up but you must come down. Bibliography Lovett, Richard (24 September 2005). Coffee: The demon drink? (Fee required). New Scientist (2518). http://www. newscientist. com/article. ns? id=mg18725181. 700. Retrieved 2009-08-03. Suzanne Farrell, MS, RD, a spokeswoman for the American Dietetic Association. Webmd. com Smit HJ, Rogers PJ: Effects of low doses of caffeine on cognitive performance, mood and thirst in low and higher caffeine consumers. Psychopharmacology 2000, 152:167-173. William J. McGuire, the Communication-Persuasion Model and Health-Risk Labeling, in Product Labeling and Health Risks Bichler A, Swenson A, Harris MA: A combination of caffeine and taurine has no effect on short term memory but induces changes in heart rate and mean arterial blood pressure. Amino Acids 2006 http://www. naturalhealthontheweb. com Australian Drug Foundations Druginfo Clearinghouse. http://www. redbull. com/faq/index. html. http://www. safefoodonline. com/news/n_190302. asp. Monster energy [http://www. monsterenergy. com/product/energy. php www. fda. gov wellnessandnutrition. com edrinks. net Smit HJ, Rogers PJ: Effects of low doses of caffeine on cognitive performance, mood and thirst in low and higher caffeine consumers. Psychopharmacology 2000, 152:167-173. http://www. naturalhealthontheweb. com Australian Drug Foundations Druginfo Clearinghouse. http://www. redbull. com/faq/index. html. http://www. safefoodonline. com/news/n_190302. asp Monster energy [http://www. monsterenergy. com/product/energy. php] www. fda. gov.