Micro Strip Antenna - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 21 Words: 6397 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Telecommunication Essay Type Essay any type Did you like this example? Chapter 1 Introduction The project which we have chosen to do as our final year project for the under graduate program involves the characterization of micro strip patch antenna. In this project we have carried out simulations of different types of antennas, which include dipole, monopole and patch. The purpose of designing all of these is to gain knowledge and experience in the designing of antennas for different purposes by using commercially available CEM. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Micro Strip Antenna" essay for you Create order The frequency band, which we have chosen as our relevant band, is the GSM-900 band, which is of wide use in the cellular network. The purpose of choosing this band is to gain valuable knowledge of this frequency band. Antennas are a fundamental part of every system in which wireless or free space is the medium of communication. Basically, an antenna is a transducer and is designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves. It is a transducer as it converts radio frequency electrical currents into electromagnetic waves. Common applications of antennas include radio, television broadcasting, point-to-point radio communication, wireless networks and radar. A detailed study of antennas is discussed in chapter two and chapter three of this report. The CEM softwares that we have used for the designing include XFDTD ® provided by Remcom Inc. and CST Microwave Studio ®, which is a full wave, 3-Dimensional, Electromagnetic simulation software and CST Microwave Studio ®. XFDTD ® utilizes a numerical electromagnetic code for antenna design, that is, the finite difference time domain technique (FDTD). Finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) is a popular computational electrodynamics modeling technique. The first antenna structure modeled is the dipole. A dipole antenna consists of two conductors on the same axis with a source at the center. It is also modeled in XFDTD ® by following the procedure provided by the software and mentioned in the Appendix. The results are verified by comparing with analytical papers of (lambda/2) dipole. After completing this, the next goal is to model the micro strip (patch) antenna which is one of the main focuses of this project. It comprises of a metallic patch bonded to a dielectric substrate with a metal layer bonded to the opposite side of the substrate forming a ground plane. This metal layer is very thin. Hence, it can be fabricated very easily using printed circuit techniques. Therefore, they are inexpensive to manu facture and are easily integrate able with microwave integrated circuits. The software modeling is carried out in XFDTD ® and on CST Microwave Studio ®. The verification of the results with the experimental results obtained leads to the final phase and the conclusion of the project. 1.1 Purpose The purpose of this project is to gain knowledge and experience about computational electromagnetic, as it applies to antenna design. It was also our sole purpose to gain experience in fabrication and experimental characterization of micro strip patch antennas. To achieve these objectives we used two commercially available CEM softwares, XFDTD ® and CST Microwave Studio ®, to design a micro strip patch antenna for 900 MHz. We also gained experimental experience by characterizing the return loss of this patch antenna using the vector network analyzer. 1.2 Project Scope 1.2.1 Description We will study some basic types of antennas; extending basic knowledge of antenna t o complex antenna designs such as micro strip patch antennas and also modeled them on antenna design and simulation software. This report has been divided into a number of chapters each discussing a different stage of the project. They are briefly described below: Chapter 2 describes the fundamentals of antennas and thoroughly discusses the theory of fundamental parameters and quantities of antenna. In this chapter the basic concept of an antenna is discussed and its working is explained. Some critical performance parameters of antennas are also discussed. Finally, some common types of antennas are also discussed for understanding purposes. Chapter 3 discusses the important characteristics of antennas as radiators of electromagnetic energy. These characteristics are normally considered in the far field as the antenna pattern or radiation pattern of an antenna is the three-dimensional plot of its radiation at far field. It also discusses the types of antenna patterns in detail. Some important mathematical equations are also solved in this chapter for the better understanding of how an antenna works. Chapter 4 discusses in detail the modeling of the half wave dipole and micro strip patch antenna using XFDTD ®. It describes the modeling of the antenna, the feeding, and the resultant plots obtained. Furthermore it concludes with comparison of the results obtained with the simulations already available in the software. Chapter 5 discusses the theory, calculations involved and the fabrication of the micro strip (patch) antenna in detail. The calculations for the dimensions of the rectangular patch in detail are in this chapter. Also, this chapter describes the results obtained through simulation of the model on the software CST Microwave Studio ®. Chapter 6 discusses conclusions drawn from the whole project. Chapter 2 Antenna Fundamentals In this chapter, the basic concept of an antenna is discussed and its working is explained. Next, some critical performance parameters of antennas are discussed. Finally, some common types of antennas are introduced. The treatment for these is taken from the reference [4], [6] and [9]. 2.1 Introduction Antenna is a metallic structure designed for radiating and receiving electromagnetic energy. An antenna acts as a transitional structure between the guiding devices (e.g. waveguide, transmission line) and the free space. The official IEEE definition of an antenna as given by Stutzman and Thiele [9] is as follows: â€Å"That part of a transmitting or receiving system that is designed to radiate or receive electromagnetic waves†. 2.2 How an Antenna radiates? In order to understand how an antenna radiates, we have to first know how radiation occurs. A conducting wire radiates because of time-varying current or an acceleration or deceleration of charge. If there is no motion of charges in a wire, no radiation will occur, since no flow of current oc curs. Radiation will not occur even if charges are moving with uniform or constant velocity along a straight wire. Also, charges moving with uniform velocity along a curved or bent wire will produce radiation. If charge is oscillating with time, then radiation will occur even along a straight wire as explained by Balanis [4]. The radiation pattern from an antenna can be further understood by considering a voltage source connected to a two-conductor transmission line. When a sinusoidal voltage source is applied across the transmission line, an electric field is generated which is sinusoidal in nature. The bunching of the electric lines of force can indicate the magnitude of this electric field. The free electrons on the conductors are forcefully displaced by the electric lines of force and the motion of these charges causes the flow of current, which leads to the creation of a magnetic field. Due to time varying electric and magnetic fields, electromagnetic waves are created wh ich travel between the conductors. When these waves approach open space, connecting the open ends of the electric lines forms free space waves. As the sinusoidal source continuously creates electric disturbance, electromagnetic waves are generated continuously and these travel through the transmission line, the antenna and are radiated into the free space. 2.3 Near and Far Field Regions The field patterns of an antenna, change with distance and are associated with two types of energy radiating and reactive energy. Hence, the space surrounding an antenna can be divided into three regions. Figure 2.1: Field regions around an antenna The three regions that are depicted in above figure are described as: 2.3.1 Reactive Near-Field Region: In this region the reactive field dominates. The reactive energy oscillates towards and away from the antenna, thus appearing as reactance. In this region, energy is stored and no energy is dissipated. The outermost boundary for this re gion is at a distance ? (2.1) where R1is the distance from antenna surface, D is the largest dimension of the antenna and ? is the wavelength. 2.3.2 Radiating Near-Field Region: This region also called Fresnel region lies between the reactive near-field region and the far field region. In this region, the angular field distribution is a function of the distance from the antenna. reactive fields are smaller in this field as compared to the reactive near-field region and the radiation fields dominate. The outermost boundary for this region is at a distance (2.2) where R2is the distance from the antenna surface. 2.3.3 Far-Field Region: The region beyond is the far field region also called Fraunhofer region. The angular field distribution is not dependent on the distance from the antenna in this region. In this region, the reactive fields are absent and only the radiation fields exist and the power density varies as the inverse square of the radial distance in th is region. 2.4 The Hertzian Dipole A hertzian dipole or infinitesimal dipole, which is a piece of straight wire whose length L and diameter are both very small, compared to one wavelength. A uniform current I is assumed to flow along its length. Although such a current element does not exist in real life, it serves as a building block from which the field of a practical antenna can be calculated (Sadiku [6]). Consider the hertzian dipole shown in figure. We assume that it is located at the origin of a coordinate system and that it carries a uniform current. i.e. I=I? cos?t. The retarded magnetic vector potential at the field point, due to dipole is given by (2.3) Where [I] is the retarded current given by (2.4) Where ?=?/u=2?/?, and u=1/ the current is said to be retarded at point under consideration because there is a propagation time delay r/u or phase delay. By substitution we may also write A in phasor form as t(2.5) Transforming this vector in Cart esian to spherical coordinates yields Where But (2.6) We find the E field using (2.7) (2.8) Where, A close observation of the field equations reveals that we have terms varying as The 1/ term is called the electrostatic field since it corresponds to the field of an electric dipole. This term dominates over other terms in a region very close to the hertzian dipole. The is called the inductive field, and it is predictable from the from the Biot Savart law. The term is important only at near field, that is, at distances close to the current element. The 1/r term is called the far field or radiation field because it is the only term that remains at the far zone, that is, at a point very far from the current element. Here, we are mainly concerned with the far field or radiation zone (?r1), where the terms in can be neglected in favor of the 1/r term. Thus at far field, (2.9) The radiation terms of and are in time phase and orthogonal just as the fields of a uniform plane wave. The near and far zone fields are determined respectively to be the in equalities We define the boundary between the near and far zones by the value of r given by . where d is the largest dimension of the antenna. The time average power density is obtained as ) (2.10) Substitution yields time average radiated power as But And hence above equation becomes If free space is the medium of propagation, ?=120 and (2.11) This power is equivalent to the power dissipated in a fictitious resistance by current That is, (2.12) Where is the root mean square value of I. From above equations we obtain Or (2.13) The resistance is a characteristic property of the hertzian dipole antenna and is called its radiation resistance. We observe that it requires antennas with large radiation resistances to deliver large amounts of power to space. The above equation for is for a hertzian dipole in free space. 2.5 Half Wave Dipole Antenna The Half Wave dipole is named after the fact that its length is half of the wavelength i.e. . It is excited through a thin wire fed at the midpoint by a voltage source connected to the antenna via a transmission line. The radiated electromagnetic field due to a dipole can be obtained if we consider it as a chain of hertzian dipoles (Sadiku [6]). ?/2 I z x y I Figure 2.3: Half Wave Dipole The magnetic Vector potential P due to length dl of the dipole carrying a phasor current is (2.14) We have assumed a sinusoidal current distribution because the current must vanish at the ends of the dipole. Also note that the actual current distribution on an antenna is not precisely known. It can be determined by using Maxwells equations subject to the boundary conditions on the antenna by a mathematically complex procedure. The sinusoidal current assumption approximates the distribution obtained by solving the boundary value problem and is commonly used. O Y X Z Figure 2.4. Magnetic field at point o If r ?, then Hence we can substitute in the denominator of the first equation where the magnitude of the distance is needed. In the numerator for the phase term, the difference between ? and ? is significant, so we will replace by . We maintain the cosine term in the exponent while neglecting it in the denominator because the exponent involves the phase constant while the denominator does not. So, (2.15) Using the following integrating equation, Applying this equation gives on (2.15) Since and the above equation becomes, Using identity = 2cos x, we obtain (2.16) We use in conjunction with the fact that to obtain electric and magnetic fields at far zone as (2.17) The radiation term of and are in time phase and orthogonal. We can obtain the time-average power density as (2.18) The time average radiated power can be determined as In the previous equations has been substituted assuming free space as t he medium of propagation. The last equation can be written as Changing the variables, and using partial fractions reduces the above equation to Replacing with in the first integrand with in the second results in (2.19) Solving the previous equation of yields value of . The radiation resistance for the half wave dipole antenna is readily obtained from the following equation and comes out to be. (2.20) Chapter 3 Antenna Characteristics In the previous chapter we have discussed the basics of antennas and the elementary types of antennas. Now we will discuss the important characteristics of antennas as radiators of electromagnetic energy. These characteristics are normally considered in the far field and are as follows. And have been treated from the references [4], [6] and [9]. 3.1 Antenna Patterns The Antenna Pattern or Radiation Pattern of an antenna is the three-dimensional plot of its radiation at far field. There are two types of Radiation Patterns of antennas. The Field and the Power Pattern. 3.1.1 Field Pattern When the amplitude of the E-field is plotted, it is called the Field Pattern or the Voltage Pattern. A three dimensional plot of an antenna pattern is avoided by plotting separately the normalized versus for a constant which is called an E-Plane pattern or vertical pattern and the normalized versus for called the H-plane pattern or horizontal pattern. The normalization of is with respect to the maximum value of the so that the maximum value of the normalized is unity as explained by Sadiku [6]. For Example, for the hertzian Dipole, the normalized comes out to be, (3.1) Which is independent of From this equation we can obtain the E-plane pattern as the polar pattern of by varying from 0 to 180 degrees. This plot will be symmetric about the z-axis. For the H-plane pattern we set so that , which is a circle of radius 1. 3.1.2 Power Pattern When the square of the amplitude of E is plotted, it is called the power pattern. A plot of the time-average power, for a fixed distance r is the power pattern of the antenna. It is obtained by plotting separately versus for constant and versus for constant. The normalized power pattern for the hertzian dipole is obtained from the equation. (3.2) 3.2 Radiation Intensity The Radiation intensity of an antenna is defined as (3.3) Using the above equation, the total average power radiated can be expressed as (3.4) (3.5) Where d?= is the differential solid angle in steradian (sr). The radiation intensity is measured in watts per steradian (W/sr). The average value of is the total radiated power divided by ; that is, (3.6) 3.3 Directive Gain The directive gain of an antenna is a measure of the concentration of the radiated power in a particular direction It can also be regarded as the ability of the antenna to direct radiated power in a given direction. It is usually obtained as the ratio of radiation intensi ty in a given direction to the average radiation intensity, that is (3.7) may also be expressed in terms of directive gain as (3.8) The directive gain depends on antenna pattern. For the hertzian dipole as well as for the half wave dipole is maximum at and minimum at . Hence they radiate power in a direction broadside to their length. For an isotropic antenna, . However, such an antenna is not in reality but an ideality. The directivity D of an antenna is the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity to the average radiation intensity. D is also the maximum directive gain So, (3.9) Or, (3.10) For an isotropic antenna, D=1, which is the smallest value that D can have. For the hertzian dipole, as derived in equation (3.7) For half wave dipole, Where, ?=120 and (3.11) 3.4 Bandwidth (Impedance Bandwidth) By definition Bandwidth of an antenna is the difference between the highest and the lowest operational frequency of the antenna. Mathemati cally, (3.12) If this ratio is 10 to 1, then the antenna I classified as a broadband antenna. Another definition for Bandwidth is: Where, . 3.5 Gain We define that G is the actual gain in power over an ideal isotropic radiator when both are fed with same power. The reference for gain is the input power, not the radiated power. This efficiency is defined as the ratio of the radiated power () to the input power (). The input power is transformed into radiated power and surface wave power while a small portion is dissipated due to conductor and dielectric losses of the materials used. The power gain of the antenna as (3.13) The ratio of the power gain in any specified direction to the directive gain in that direction is referred to as the radiation efficiency of the antenna i.e. (3.14) Antenna gain can also be specified using the total efficiency instead of the radiation efficiency only. This total efficiency is a combination of the radiation efficie ncy and efficiency linked to the impedance matching of the antenna. Hence, from equation 3.14 (3.14(a)) 3.6 Polarization The definition for polarization can be quoted from Balanis [4] as: â€Å"Polarization of a radiated wave can be expressed as â€Å"that property of an electromagnetic wave describing the time-varying direction and relative magnitude of the electric field vector; specifically, the figure traced as a function of time by the extremity of the vector at a fixed location in space, and in the sense in which it is traced, as observed along the direction of propagation.† Polarization then is the curve traced by the end point of the arrow representing the instantaneous electric field. The field must be observed along the direction of propagation.† 3.7 Return Loss The Return Loss (RL) is the parameter which indicates the amount of power that is lost to or consumed by the load and is not reflected back as waves are reflected which leads to the formation of standing waves. This occurs when the transmitter and antenna impedance do not match. Hence, the RL is a parameter to indicate how well the matching between the transmitter and antenna has taken place. The RL is given as: (3.15) For perfect matching between the antenna and transmitter, RL = ? and ? = 0 which means no power is being reflected back, whereas a ? = 1 has a RL = 0 dB, which implies that all incident power is reflected. For practical applications a RL of -9.54 dB is acceptable. Chapter 4 Modeling of Half-Wave Dipole Micro Strip Patch Antenna Using XFDTD ® 4.1 Introduction For the purpose of modeling and simulation of antennas we have used modeling softwares, which are widely used in industries. These softwares are specially used for the purpose of electromagnetic (EM) modeling, which refers to the process of modeling the interaction of electromagnetic fields with physical objects and the environment. The first such software bro ught into use is XFDTD ®. It is a three-dimensional full wave electromagnetic solver based on the finite difference time domain method. It is fully three-dimensional.   Complex CAD ® objects can be imported into XFDTD ® and combining and editing can be done within XFDTD ® using the internal graphical editor. It is a powerful software which offers a lot of options to its users. This software has been initially used for modeling of basic antennas to get familiarity with interface and working of the software. Dipole is one of such basic antennas with a simple structure; as the name suggests dipole antenna consists of two wires on the same axis with a source applied at the center point. In this chapter, we begin with the analysis of a half-wave dipole antenna by derivation of field equations and the MATLAB ® plot. After the analysis the modeling is done using XFDTD ®. Finally, all the results are matched by plotting the data in MATLAB ®. 4.2 Derivation of Vector Magnetic Potential We begin with the derivation done in chapter 2 for of the radiated fields for a half-wave dipole antenna in equation 3.11 which gives us the following expression for (4.11) 4.2.1 MATLAB ® Plots of Half Wave Dipole Antenna The expression can be plotted in MATLAB ® using the following code clear all; theta = [0:360]*pi/180; F = cos((pi/2)*cos(theta))./(0.0000001 + sin(theta)); Pn = F./max(F); Pn=abs(Pn); title (POLAR PLOT OF HALF WAVE DIPOLE ) polar(0,1); hold on; polar (theta,Pn,r); The MATLAB ® generated plot of normalized electric field for half-wave dipole for above code is as follows Figure 4.1: MATLAB ® plot for Normalized Electric Field 4.3 Modeling of Half Wave Dipole Using XFDTD ® 4.3.1 Introduction XFDTD ® is a full wave, 3D, Electromagnetic Analysis Software. XFDTD ® used solid, dimension based modeling to create geometries. To create geometry, library objects and editing functions may be u sed. Modeling of half-wave dipole antenna was carried out in XFDTD ® to test the softwares capability of generating far field radiation pattern. And also to get in depth knowledge of XFDTD ® before using it for the modeling of patch antennas, which is the foremost objective of this project. 4.3.2 Validity of Model As in the previous section the electromagnetic theory of half-wave dipole was studied and its mathematical equations for normalized radiated field was derived and plotted. This plot will be our reference plot while doing the modeling of half-wave dipole. 4.3.3 Modeling of Half Wave Dipole As we know the length of a half-wave dipole antenna should be half the wavelength of the operating carrier wave frequency. Thus the dipole modeled in XFDTD ® has the following specifications: Length of 30cm Frequency used 1 GHz Thin wire was used to create the dipole Source was attached in the middle Figure below shows the geometry of dipole being modeled in XFDTD ®. Figure 4.2: XFDTD ® geometry of Half-Wave Dipole 4.3.4 Results The far fields of dipole antenna were calculated by XFDTD ® and plots were obtained for far field versus both Phi and Theta, as shown in Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4. The results matched with the theoretically established results. Figure 4.3: Far Field vs. Theta Figure 4.4: Far Field vs. Phi 4.3.5 Plotting XFDTD ® Results in MATLAB ® The data for far fields from XFDTD ® was exported and matched with the theoretical results in MATLAB ® for the purpose of confirming the results. Help was taken from the XFDTD ® reference manual to learn how to export far field data. The XFDTD ® file was copied and the extension was changed to ‘.dat and name was changed to ‘XFTDT.dat Next this file was read by MATLAB ® using the MATLAB ® code provided [angle1, a1, c1, d1, e1] = textread(XFDTD.dat,%f %f %f %f %f, 361); a ngle1=angle1*pi/180; q=find(c1-9); c1(q)=-9; c1=c1+9; m=max(c1); c1=c1./m; polar(angle1,c1,g) The MATLAB ® result is shown n figure below. Figure 4.8: XFDTD ® radiation pattern in MATLAB ® The experimentally produced curve qualitatively matches with our theoretical calculations. The shape of the curve is similar to the theoretical description, whereas the scale is different. For the purpose of confirming this result, the data of this curve is also exported into MATLAB ® to be compared with previously simulated results. 4.4 Modeling of Micro Strip Patch Antenna Using XFDTD ® 4.4.1 Introduction After gaining confidence on the design of dipole antenna by comparing its results with the simulations and the results obtained from MATLAB ®, we use the same computational software for the modeling of micro strip patch antenna. 4.4.2 Validity of Model For the modeling of micro strip patch antenna, a paper of IEEE â€Å"Application of Three -Dimensional Finite-Difference Time Domain Method of the Analysis of Planar Micro strip Circuits† is reproduced. This paper is used as a reference so that the results could be compared in order to check the validity. The result of our exercise confirms the results of the IEEE paper; this takes us to design a micro strip antenna of our desired parameters. This training will help us gain the expertise over the computational software, which can be used for the modeling of multiple different antennas. 4.4.3 Modeling of Micro Strip Patch Antenna The antenna is designed for the frequency range from 0 GHz (dc) to 20 GHz. The dimensions used for the antenna centers it at 7.8 GHz. Although its results at the higher frequencies are also examined for the accuracy, the parameters for the antenna are given below: Duroid substrate is used with =2.2 Thickness is 1/32 inch=0.794mm Length = 12.45mm Width = 16mm Transmission line feed is used and is placed at 2.09mm away from the left corner. With these specifications the center frequency comes out to be 7.8 GHz and this can be verified from the link www.emtalk.com/mpaclac.php Figure 4.5 shows the geometry of micro strip patch modeled in XFDTD ®. Figure 4.5 Geometry of the micro strip patch antenna 4.4.4 Results The S11 plot of micro strip patch antenna was calculated by XFDTD ®, as shown in Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 is the plot of the IEEE paper. This gives us the comparison between the two. Figure 4.6 obtained from the XFDTD ® Figure 4.7: Results of S11 parameters from published IEEE Papers Chapter 5 Micro Strip Antennas 5.1 Introduction These days there are many commercial applications, such as mobile radio and wireless communication, where size, weight, cost, performance, ease of installation, and aerodynamic profiles are constraints and low profile antennas may be required. To meet these requirements micro strip antennas can be used. These are low profile antennas and are conformabl e to planar and non-planar surfaces. These are simple and inexpensive to manufacture using modern printed circuit technology. They are also mechanically robust and can be mounted on rigid surfaces. In addition, micro strip antennas are very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern and impedance as explained by Balanis [4]. 5.1.1 Basic Characteristics Micro strip antennas consist of a very thin metallic strip or patch placed a small fraction of a wavelength above a ground plane. The micro strip patch is designed so its pattern maximum is normal to the patch hence making it a broadside radiator. This is accomplished by properly choosing the mode or field configuration of excitation beneath the patch. End-fire radiation can also be accomplished by judicious mode selection. For a rectangular patch, the length L of the element is usually . The conducting micro strip or patch and the ground plane are separated by the substrate (Balanis [4]). There are numer ous substrates that can be used for the design of micro strip antennas and their dielectric constants are usually in the range of . The substrate that we are using in our designs has a value of 4.6. Often micro strip antennas are also referred to as patch antennas. The radiating elements and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate. The radiating patch may be square, rectangular, thin strip, circular, elliptical, triangular or any other configuration. Arrays of micro strip elements with single or multiple feeds are used to achieve greater directivities. 5.1.2 Feeding Methods There are numerous methods that can be used to feed micro strip antennas. The four most common and popular are the micro strip line, coaxial probe, aperture coupling and proximity coupling. In our designs we have selected coaxial probe as our method of feeding the Micro strip antenna. Following is a brief explanation of coaxial feeding as explained by Balanis [4]. Coaxia l-line feeds, where the inner conductor of the coax is attached to the radiation patch while the outer conductor is connected to the ground plane are widely used. The coaxial probe feed is also easy to fabricate and match, and it has low spurious radiation. However is has narrow bandwidth and it is more difficult to model. 5.2 Rectangular Patch The rectangular patch is one of the most widely used configurations of Micro strip antennas. It is very easy to analyze using either the transmission line model or the cavity model, which have higher accuracy for thin substrates as explained by Balanis [4]. In our design we have used transmission line model. A brief description of both these models is given: 5.2.1 Transmission-Line model The transmission line model is the easiest of all but it gives the least accurate results and also lacks versatility. However, it does shed some physical insight into the design of the antenna. In a more basic explanation, the transmission-line mo del represents the micro strip antenna by two slots, separated by a low-impedance transmission line of length L. Figure 5.1: Micro Strip Patch Antenna with line feeding (i) Fringing Effect Because of the finite length and width of patch the field at the edges of the patch undergoes fringing. This is illustrated in the Figure 5.2. The amount of fringing depends on the physical dimensions of the antenna and is a function of the dimensions and the height of the patch. For micro strip antennas, as 1, thus the fringing is reduced. However, it must be taken into account as the resonant frequencies of the antennas are influenced by fringing (Balanis [4]). Following Figure 5.2 shows the fringing effect along the width of micro strip line. Figure 5.2: Electric field lines along the width of micro strip lines As most of the electric field lines reside in the substrate and parts of some lines exist in air. Because 1 and 1, the electric field lines concentrates mostly in th e substrate. Since some of the waves travel in the air and some in the substrate and effective dielectric constant ‘ should be introduced. (5.1) (ii) Effective Length, Resonant Frequency, and Effective Width: Because of fringing effects the patch of the micro strip antenna comes out to be greater than its physical dimensions. The dimensions of the patch along its length can be extended on each end by a distance of , which is a function of the effective dielectric constant and the width to the height ratio (W/h). A common approximate relation for the normalized extension of the length is: (5.2) Since the length of the path has now been extended on each side by , the effective length of the patch is now As the resonant frequency of the micro strip antenna is a function of its length. For a good radiator, the practical width that is used to obtain good radiation results is (5.3) where, is the velocity of light. The actual length of the patch can n ow be obtained from (5.4) The above calculations have been followed according to the formulas provided in Balanis [4]. 5.3 Calculations for the Designed Patch: Calculation for the effective width of the patch from (5.3) For using (5.1), Calculations for using equation (5.2), Calculation for L using equation (5.4), 5.4 Modeling of Micro Strip Antennas 5.4.1 Introduction Figure 5.3: Side View of Patch Antenna with Coaxial Feed One of the popular antenna types is patch antenna, which gains its name from the fact that it basically consists of a metal patch suspended over a ground plane. Patch antennas are simple to fabricate and easy to modify and customize. They are closely related to micro strip antennas, which are just patch antennas constructed on a dielectric substrate, usually employing the same sort of lithographic patterning used to fabricate printed circuit boards. The simplest patch antenna uses a half-wavelength-long patch and a larger ground plane. Large ground planes give better performance but of course make the antenna bigger. It isnt uncommon for the ground plane to be only modestly larger than the active patch. The current flow is along the direction of the feed wire, so the vector potential and thus the electric field follow the current, as shown by the arrow in the figure labeled E. A simple patch antenna of this type radiates a linearly polarized wave. The radiation can be regarded as being produced by the â€Å"radiating slots at top and bottom, or equivalently as a result of the current flowing on the patch and the ground plane. 5.5 Modeling of Micro Strip Patch Antenna Using Microwave Studio ® 5.5.1 Introduction Microwave Studio is a specialist tool for the fast accurate simulation of high frequency problems. Figure 5.4: Patch Antenna designed in Microwave Studio ® 5.5.2 Results The same S11 parameters are calculated and compared with the already carried out results, comparison is shown below. It can be seen that as compared to other Antenna Design Simulation software, results generated by Microwave Studio ® are more accurate due to its automatic grid and show more resemblance with the published results. It is assumed that due to the fact that the Microwave Studio ® generates the grid by itself therefore there are less chances of error and it generates more accurate results. Figure 5.5: S11 VS frequency generated by Microwave Studio ® Figure 5.6: S-parameter Polar plot generated by Microwave Studio ® Figure 5.7: S-Parameter Smith Chart generated by Microwave Studio ® Figure 5.8: Far-Field Radiation Pattern generated by Microwave Studio ® 5.6 Designing Micro Strip Antenna 5.6.1 Design parameters Operating frequency = to be tested Polarization = Linear For the choice of printed circuit board we used FR-4 limited because of the unavailability of Teflon, which is not a good choice because of the value. The value of varies from 4 .2 to 4.8. The value of that we have used for calculations and design is 4.6. The thickness of FR-4 PCB is 1.6mm, which again is not a good choice as far as micro strip antennas, is concerned. So, the characteristic of our antenna are: Center frequency (fo): to be seen Dielectric constant (): 4.6 Dielectric thickness (h): 1.6 mm. Polarization = Linear Feeding Method = Probe feed 5.6.2 Fabrication Following steps are followed in the fabrication process: First the micro strip antenna is modeled on any image design software so that it can be printed on film sheet. Then the modeled antenna is printed on a film. The film is used in the etching of PCB (Printed Circuit Board). Next a hole is drilled for providing feed. Finally the connector is attached. 5.7 Results 5.7.1 Calculating the Ideal Feed Point Location The results tabulated below are obtained after varying the feed location along the length of the patch from the origin or center of patch to its right most edge. The coaxial probe feed used is designed to have a radius of 0.5mm. The table below shows the calculated results for different feed locations. By obtaining these results we can locate the ideal feeding point on our micro strip patch antenna, which is the point that yields the maximum, return loss. The feeding point calculated from out results comes out to be 10mm in the horizontal direction. The feed point and results are treated from the method provided in reference [8]. NO Feed Location (x, y) (mm) Center Frequency (GHz) Return Loss(RL) (dB) 1 (4,0) 0.880 -2.74 2 (5,0) 0.880 -4.41 3 (6,0) 0.880 -6.514 4 (7,0) 0.880 -9.186 5 (8,0) 0.880 -12.9 6 (10,0) 0.880 -28.63 Table 5.1 Effect of Feed locations on center frequency and return loss Frequency (GHz) Figure 5.9 Return Loss for feed located at different locations dB Figure 5.10 Magnified view of the above graph Frequency (GHz) dB The above plotted figure shows that as we increase distance of the feed point from the origin in the horizontal x direction the return loss increases and goes to level -25 dB which gives us the ideal feed point location. The magnified view of the figure shows this more clearly. 5.7.2 Obtained Results of the Fabricated Micro Strip Antenna After the fabrication of the designed micro strip patch antenna, the antenna has been tested on the network analyzer available in the lab. The obtained result for the return loss i.e. S11 is displayed below. Figure 5.11 Results obtained from Network Analyzer. Comment: The above figure clearly shows that the designed patch antenna is not resonant on the objective frequency which was 900 MHz Instead it shows better characteristics at frequency of almost 1.44 GHz and 1.83 GHz which were not the objective frequencies under consideration while designing the patch. The diagnosed reason behind such behavior of the antenna was the choice of incorrect relative permittivity () for the substrate material as the material was purchased from the open market. Chapter 6 Conclusion The objective of this project was to gain expertise over the computational electromagnetics and the modeling of antennas. Antennas were modeled by utilizing the commercial softwares. Initially a basic dipole antenna was modeled on XFDTD ® and the results were verified by comparing modeled results with published results using MATLAB ®. The next step was taken towards a much difficult and complex antenna i.e. micro strip antenna which was modeled by using both the software as mentioned above (XFDTD ® and Microwave Studio ®). Firstly just for the purpose of getting familiar with the softwares a paper of IEEE was implemented and the results were verified this process was carried out on XFDTD ®. Different kinds of micro strip antennas were modeled in XFDTD ® and Microwave Studio ® and there results were verified either by experimental data or by comparing the simulation with the published results. Later Microwave Studio ® was used to design the micro strip antenna for our desired frequency. After the modeling of the antenna we moved on to the fabrication process. A double sided PCB of fiberglass was used onto which the antenna is made. This fabricated antenna was then tested on the network analyzer to obtain the return loss and then in the antenna testing laboratory. The results were discussed with respect to the predicted results and commented on in the previous chapters. Hence as a result we can justifiably conclude that this project has helped us gain knowledge of computational electromagnetics and the design and fabrication of different types of ante nnas for various purposes and also the testing of the fabricated antennas. Further advancement in this project can be the designing of a micro strip array patch antenna and later enhancing it to Fractal antenna for desired frequencies and the fabrication of the antenna.

Organization theory- learning journal Example

Essays on Organization theory- learning journal Article Organization Theory – Learning Journal: Organizations as Brains and Social Domination Organizations as Brains and Social Domination In an article entitled â€Å"Leading Brain-Like Organizations: Toward Synthesis And Practical Guidelines† written by Tatevik Avetyan, an Honors College Theses published online by the Pforzheimer Honors College on 2006 proffered pertinent issues relative to the metaphor that sees organizations as brains. Avetyan (2006) presented a comparative analysis between the human brain and an organization. From among the similarities between the human brain and organizations noted, the following are noteworthy: â€Å"the human brain is an open social system; it requires proper collection and analysis of information; and it is comprised of units and subunits that perform unique functions† (Avetyan, 2006, p. 13). Likewise, it was also emphasized that just like organizations, â€Å"the human brain is a well-balanced structure in terms of differentiation and integration; centralization and decentralization; standardization and mutual adjustment† (Avetyan, 2006, p. 13). Concurre ntly, on the disparities side, the author indicated areas such as flexibility, structure, and degrees of competitiveness and cohesiveness. The summarized comparative analysis appears below: Similarities and Differences between Organizational and Brain Structure Similarities 1. Organizations and Brains are mechanisms for information-processing. 2. Organizations and Brains are networks. 3. Organizations and Brains are designed with varying degrees of differentiation and integration, centralization and formalization. 4. Organizations and Brains have both mechanistic and organic characteristics. Differences 1. Organizations tend to be more flexible whereas Brains tend to be more rigid. 2. Organizations have taller hierarchical structure whereas Brains have flatter structure. 3. Organizations have more internal competition whereas Brains have team cohesiveness. Source: Avetyan, 2006, p. 17 This is an very informative and comprehensive article that compares an organization to the human brain. Likewise, through actual case studies of organizations such as Microsoft and Enron, the author tried to apply the research hypotheses and effectively concluded that â€Å"structure ensures an entity’s success or failure as evidenced by the human brain†¦ more and more organizations must become more â€Å"brain-like†, that is, be able to adopt the correct type of structure† (Avetyan, 2006, p. 24). In terms of seeing the organization as a process of domination, the paper written by Xavier Leflaive entitled â€Å"Organizations as Structures of Domination† and published in the Sage Journals in 1996 discussed areas that touched on descriptors of power, domination, hierarchy, reflexivity, surveillance, and critical theory. The article was likewise published online by the CBS Interactive Resource Library. Consistent with the information that were discussed in the course, organizations were seen as vehicles of operating for the selfish interests of achieving the goals of a few at the expense of many. (Leflaive, 1996). As emphasized by Leflaive, â€Å"organizations are best portrayed as structures of domination, where power and domination refer to a collective capacity to act. They are fragile, transient accomplishments, momentarily concentrating resources for collective action† (p. 1). The author likewise stressed the study was part of a comprehensive research which de picts the organization as reflective social systems (Leflaive, 1996, p. 1). It likewise manifests its existence as part of the society where its operations influence and are influenced by external factors that either strengthen or limit their operations and existence. References Avetyan, T. (2006). Leading Brain-Like Organizations: Toward Synthesis And Practical Guidelines. Retrieved June 11, 2012, from digitalcommons.pace.edu: http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1038context=honorscollege_thesessei-redir=1referer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com.ph%2Furl%3Fsa%3Dt%26rct%3Dj%26q%3Dorganizations%2Bas%2Bbrains%26source%3Dweb%26cd%3D8%26ved%3D0CG0QFjAH%26url%3Dht Leflaive, X. (1996, January). Organizations as Structures of Domination. Retrieved June 11, 2012, from Sage Journals: http://oss.sagepub.com/content/17/1/23.abstract or http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m4339/is_n1_v17/ai_18347915/

Culture Within Organizations Southwest Airlines Free Essays

A culture is a set of values that are adopted by people who co-habit any place. It consists of shared traits and lifestyles. Within an organization, culture refers to values and norms that are prevalent throughout the workplace and amongst the employees. We will write a custom essay sample on Culture Within Organizations: Southwest Airlines or any similar topic only for you Order Now This includes their mannerisms, attitudes, and work ethic. Culture within an organization exerts control over the behavior of people. Growth and success of a company depends largely on the type of culture which is prevalent within an organization. Many different types of culture exist in businesses today. Certain cultures encourage employees to work and grow together as a family—thereby creating unity. Others may place emphasis on higher ranking employees, which leaves those at the bottom of the hierarchy bitter or resentful, creating a workplace which may not be friendly or comfortable. Some companies may opt to stick to what they know, thereby stifling creativity and growth by eliminating experimentation. On the other hand, a company may be overly innovative and always looking for new ideas and taking new risks. Although this sounds good in theory, it may lead to an unstable work environment. Culture can either make or break an organization. Culture is not a tangible object. It is the result of management’s beliefs and values and employees’ implementation of those beliefs and values. It exists within all organizations and can be determined, for example, by looking at the dress code within the workplace. It can also be seen by observing employee interaction and behavior. One can also get an idea of an organization’s culture by taking note of its dealings with those outside of the company (i. . customer service). Culture makes up the personality of an organization. It is crucial that a positive organizational culture is created, taught and adhered to. It can be used to improve the efficiency and work ethic of employees in an organization. It also has a powerful influence over the behavior of individuals and drives performance of the workforce. A strong personality adds cha racter to an individual. Likewise, organizational culture gives a business its own special identity. It creates unity among employees and embeds in them the spirit of teamwork. An example of an organization which has a strong culture that has helped it thrive in the aviation industry is Southwest Airlines. Southwest Airlines (SWA) was founded by Rollin King, M. Lamar Muse and Herb Kelleher in 1966. They began servicing Dallas, Houston and San Antonio in 1971, after winning a legal battle fought in the U. S. Supreme Court. The airline started off by offering six daily roundtrip flights between Dallas and San Antonio, and 12 daily roundtrip flights between Dallas and Houston. They began with one simple notion: â€Å"If you get your passengers to their destinations when they want to get there, on time, at the lowest possible fares, and make darn sure they have a good time doing it, people will fly your airline† (www. southwest. com). This notion has led to a very unique culture at SWA—one that puts customer service at its center. This can be seen through their mission statement, as per their website: â€Å"dedication to the highest quality of Customer Service delivered with a sense of warmth, friendliness, individual pride, and Company Spirit†. Their exemplary form of customer service comes as a direct result of how employees at SWA are treated. â€Å"We are committed to provide our Employees a stable work environment with equal opportunity for learning and personal growth. Creativity and innovation are encouraged for improving the effectiveness of Southwest Airlines. Above all, Employees will be provided the same concern, respect, and caring attitude within the organization that they are expected to share externally with every Southwest Customer† (Freiberg and Freiberg). SWA management has created a culture where employees are treated as the company’s number one asset. There is limited emphasis on formal organizational structure and the work environment combines humor with responsibility. Their happy workforce creates maximum productivity—willingly. Trust and respect between the workers and management is an integral part of the company’s success. SWA has exemplified that culture starts from within. Passion shown on the inside will reflect outwards and customers will see it. SWA has been able to do this consistently. Customers see the passion exerted by SWA employees and it makes them want to travel with them. The uplifting, spirited personalities of employees keep customers coming back for more. This can be seen in the fact that SWA has consecutively recorded profits for the last 40 years (www. southwest. com). The positive attitudes exerted by SWA employees are contagious and trickle down to its customers. As reported on the company website, â€Å"Southwest Airlines has consistently received the lowest ratio of complaints per passengers boarded of all Major U. S. arriers that have been reporting statistics to the Department of Transportation since September 1987. † The spirit that exists throughout SWA empowers its employees to believe in themselves, the service they are providing, the business as a whole, and the customers that they serve. The unique culture keeps employee morale high. All employees, including flight attendants, customer service reps, and baggage handlers, are encourage d to take whatever action they deem necessary to meet customer needs or help fellow workers (Milliman). This has led to both employee and customer loyalty. Employees feel needed which results in a devotion to the company. In turn, customers experience exceptional service where they truly are put first, creating a sense of belonging. Much of SWA’s success is due to the willingness of its leadership to be innovative. Founder Herb Kelleher studied California-based Pacific Southwest Airlines extensively and used many of the airline’s ideas to form the corporate culture at Southwest. Early on, they adopted the â€Å"Long Legs and Short Nights† theme for stewardesses on board typical Southwest Airlines flights. They selected beautiful flight attendants with unique personalities and dressed them in hot pants and go-go boots to ensure a fun and one-of-a-kind traveler’s experience (http://avstop. com). Operating out of Love Field, â€Å"love† became their promotional theme. Flight attendants would serve â€Å"love potions† and â€Å"love bites† (otherwise known as drinks and peanuts) to the company’s clientele of mostly male business fliers (Pederson). Many decisions made by Kelleher have produced positive outcomes for SWA. For example, since its inception, SWA chose to buy its commercial airplanes from one manufacturer. This decision has allowed them to decrease operational expenses, as well as reduce maintenance and repair costs for their large fleet. By choosing a single supplier, the need for customer support, maintenance, monitoring, training, etc. has been reduced, thereby reducing costs for the company. They have also trimmed the time it takes to perform ground duties, once their airplanes land. This has led to a quicker turnaround time for the next flight to take off, thereby leading to profits for the company. Another move by SWA which keeps competitors at bay is their reservation system. Reservations are taken only through the internet, thereby reducing costs of using ticket counter employees. This method saves both the customer and the airline time and money. Kelleher’s paradigm for success starts with the core of the company—its employees. Hiring motivated people and allowing them to incorporate their creativity in day-to-day activities is key. By giving employees decision making abilities, they are made to feel important. A sense of pride takes root within each employee, which positively impacts the customers that they deal with. This is reflected in their work output and creates greater efficiency, which leads to profitability for the company. Additionally, happier employees are able to provide better customer service, in turn making the experience an all around positive one. As Amy Marhoffer, Culture Communications and Planning specialist at SWA puts it, â€Å"Happy Employees=Happy Customers=Increased Business/Profits=Happy Shareholders. Although compensation is often viewed as the number one motivator, Kelleher understands the importance that employee morale plays. A little bit of fun can translate into a lot of productivity. Bailey explains how positive morale can produce more efficiency: â€Å"SWA, after pay cuts at other airlines, has the industry’s highest wages. But because of efficient work habits, measured in how much it spends to fly a passenger a given distance, its costs are the lowest among big airlines† (Bailey). It is important to note that the success of SWA is due not only to the culture but also its ability to adapt to the industry’s needs. The airline industry in particular, is one that is heavily dependent on customer service; the happier customers are, the more positive their experience will be. Unfortunately, there is plenty of untapped productivity among corporations stuck in the old ways of oppression and tyranny. Kelleher’s approach shows that he understands people; he allows them to be themselves, which creates a positive work environment and a desire to be the best. He has successfully created a culture that has the properties of fun, entertainment and genuine care at its core. When Southwest started in 1971 they were just a small regional carrier flying from Houston to Dallas. Over the course of the last 40+ years, they have successfully expanded into a major airline carrier. SWA is now America’s largest low-fare carrier, serving more customers domestically than any other airline. They are comprised of nearly 46,000 employees and serve more than 100 million customers each year. SWA operates more than 3,000 flights a day, with its subsidiary AirTran operating an additional 520 flights a day (www. southwest. com). They would not be where they are today without the innovative thinking of its leaders and the strong culture they created. Although corporate culture is not a tangible object, the results of a successful culture will produce tangible success. SWA has positioned itself for competitive advantage by creating a work environment which permits people to be their best selves and consistently outperform their competitors. It has been able to create and sustain a strong, positive culture which attracts not only the best talent, but a loyal customer base as well. The tremendous growth and profit of SWA brings to light how corporate culture, employee morale and customer service can play an integral part in the overall success of a corporation. These intangible elements are what make SWA an excellent example of a successful corporate culture. Works Cited AvStop Aviation News and Resource Online Magazine. â€Å"History of Southwest Airlines† http://avstop. om/history/historyofairlines/southwest. html) Bailey, Jeff (2008) â€Å"Southwest. Way Southwest† The New York Times Freiberg, K. Freiberg, J. (1996) Nuts! Southwest Airlines’ Crazy Recipe for Business and Personal Success. New York: Broadway Marhoffer, Amy. (2011) â€Å"Southwest Airlines â€Å"Gets It† With Our Culture† http://www. blogsouthwest. com/blog/southwest-airlines-â€Å"gets-it†-our-culture Pederson, Jay P. (2005) International Directory of Company Histories, Vol. 71. St. James Press Southwest Airlines Co. (2013) †Southwest Airlines† http://www. southwest. com/ How to cite Culture Within Organizations: Southwest Airlines, Essay examples

Contemporary Ireland On Stage Essay Example For Students

Contemporary Ireland On Stage Essay 2016Final essay 60% (3000 words) Tuesday 3 May at 2pm Deliver to Drama and Film Studies Administrator, C218, Newman Building1. The tendency of a nation towards xenophobia or insularity can beresisted by its own narrative resources to imagine itself otherwise?(Richard Kearney) Discuss this statement, in relation to theatre, making close reference to two plays/productions on your course. 2. In Tom Kilroys stage direction to Talbots Box (1979), the set is described as a primitive, enclosed space, part-prison, part-sanctuary, part-acting space. This description almost perfectly situates virtually all of Irish drama in the last twenty years. 3. Contemporary Irish plays explore the irresolvable conflict betweenentrapment and unhomeliness? (Anna McMullan) Discuss this statement withclose reference to the work of two contemporary Irish playwrights onyour course. 4. Despite all the changes to the material wealth of Ireland during the Celtic Tiger period (1993-2007), so many of Irelands playwrights set their works in contexts of subsistence living and destitution. Regularly, there appears to be a sentimentalising of poverty, a romanticisation of difference, and characterisations based on a tendency towards histrionics (Pilkington), rather than more precise and critical interrogations of broader systemic civic injustices. 5.Irish plays and/or performances can no longer rely on agreed national images, and actively work to challenge them. Discuss with detailed reference to two plays or performances on your module. 6. How do contemporary Irish plays construct audiences as voyeurs, as witnesses, as participants, and/or as judges? Discuss with close reference to two plays on your module. 7. Most plays are about families and the shock of change. Discuss this statement (based on Frank McGuinnesss comment on The Hanging Gardens) with close reference to two plays on your module. Please include references to at least six critical sources.

System of education of Great Britain free essay sample

1. System of instruction of Great Britain ( simplified circuit of instruction of Great Britain ) Initial school instruction 5-12 old ages preparative schools 5-7 old ages of simple schools, 7-12 old ages of a twenty-four hours clip type ( private ( single ) and province ) or boarding-schools ( as a regulation, private ( single ) ) ; schools for the male childs, school for the misss, school of joint preparation Average school instruction 11-18 old ages. Five obligatory categories for response of the certification GCSE: Assorted schools and colleges of a twenty-four hours clip type or boarding-schools ( private ( single ) and province ) ; School for the male childs, school for the misss, school of joint preparation ; Certificate GCSE ( General Certificate of Secondary Education ) parallel of the Russian school-leaving certification ; the farther instruction non needfully Sixth category 1-2 academic old ages for response of the certification GCE A Level ( General Certificate of Education Advanced Level ) or preparative rates 16-18 old ages assorted schools and colleges of a twenty-four hours clip type or boarding-schools ( private ( single ) and province ) ; School for the male childs, school for the misss, school of joint preparation ; the certification GCE A Level or diploma about the expiration ( stoping ) of preparatory rates necessary status for reception in high school the Further instruction 2-year s preparation in private ( single ) or province college or institute on one of academic or professional fortes ; Reception of the maximal national sheepskin HND ( Higher National Diploma ) Maximum instruction 3-4 old ages developing on twenty-four hours clip subdivision of college, polytechnic institute or university on one of the academic or professional plans ; Reception of a grade of the unmarried man Maximum instruction 1-2 old ages of survey on twenty-four hours clip subdivision of polytechnic institute or university, including preparation or research occupation and protection of the sheepskin ; Reception of a grade of the Foreman Maximum instruction 1-3 old ages of independent research occupation at university under the way of the professors, protection of the thesis ; Reception of a grade of the physician. We will write a custom essay sample on System of education of Great Britain or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page However extremely the British instruction in the universe, however in in-between 1950ss was appreciated. The authorities of Great Britain has begun reform All system, from an simple school up to high school. Wholly this reform is non completed and to this twenty-four hours. In consequence today in the state some types of high schools peacefully coexist, for illustration. The basal educational lower limit is legislatively fixed which should be given by ( with ) any school is non dependent on a type and plans of preparation. Obligatory secondary instruction ( kids besides is study till 15-16 of old ages ) , and this obligatory instruction free-of-charge. The alumnuss of high schools pass scrutinies and, every bit good as our Russian schoolboys, receive foremost in life the certification GCSE, nevertheless as against the Russian parallel GCSE does non give the right to move in high schools. After that the immature people appear before a pick either to look for occupation, or to go on to analyze. The old system of high schools was saved in some countries of a countryside. Here after expiration ( stoping ) an simple school by consequences of trial. Examinations kids are distributed ( allocated ) for three types of high schools most capable act in particular school, others direct or to proficient schools, or in modern school. At mean proficient schools is given general educational, general proficient and initial professional preparation. The modern school was so is named because in the basal plan of developing there were no ancient linguistic communications ( Latin and ancient Greek ) , were taught merely modern. At these schools the usual secondary instruction is given, but the important portion of the plan is made by ( with ) practical employment ( businesss ) . At one time after go forthing school the alumnuss fundamentally act on occupation. The reorganisation of high school has resulted that in big metropoliss the complex schools for kids from 11 boulder clay 18 old ages have appeared. About it will be in item told in the chapter devoted high school. High school coating by scrutinies GCSE, five old ages. Those who is traveling to foster to move in high school, should stop the 6th category and base on balls scrutiny on the certification GCE A Level # 8211 ; general ( common ) certification on the profound educational degree. If to compare our system of instruction to English, the certification GCE A Level really corresponds ( meets ) to the papers on the expiration ( stoping ) of preparatory rates of high school, in which you are traveling to move. The footings the 6th category and the plans of an And degree are in Great Britain nominal and denominate the assorted plans and rates carry oning to reception GCE A Level. For reception in high schools in Great Britain besides schools there are colleges of the 6th ca tegory, younger two-year colleges and it is simple colleges, in which Teach non merely general educational topics of the 6th category, but besides professional subjects. After the certification GCE A Level is received, before the immature people the farther and maximal instruction is unfastened. The term maximal instruction concerns to the plans, which purpose award of a grade of the unmarried man, chief or doctor. The Further instruction of an academic grade does non give, it, as a regulation, professional preparation. The rate of the farther preparation is finished by scrutinies and response of the maximal national sheepskin HND. In the field of vocational developing the sheepskin given by one of three professional commissions are most apprehended: CGLI ( City and Guilds of London Institute ) , RSA ( Royal Society of Arts ) , BTEC ( Business and Technical Education Council ) . Many colleges and institutes are authorized to give out the sheepskin on behalf of one of these three commissions. Other educational establishments give out or ain sheepskin and certifications, or sheepskin of other scrutiny commissions. The sheepskin HND is of import for having by the 1 who is traveling to at one time to get down occupation on the elected forte and is non traveling to be protected on a grade of the unmarried man. From the point of position of professional calling, this sheepskin allows to progress on a service within the bounds of the mean proficient or younger administrative board of house. Besides holding this sheepskin, it is possible to come in university ( if all the same are convinced of necessity of maximal instruction ) , and to get down developing at one time from the 2nd rate. Maximal instruction the Englishmen receive in colleges, polytechnic institutes and universities. After 3-4 old ages of survey on twenty-four hours clip branch the young person receives a grade of the unmarried man. Having this grade, it is possible to number on a good station in a non-production portion or mean administrative board private ( single ) or state-owned house, at the industrial endeavor, or to open ain pr ivate ( single ) pattern ( for physicians and attorneies ) . The grade of the unmarried man suffices for some trades, and farther instruction it is non required. But for the bulk of fortes the grade of the chief opens much more chances. For illustration, holding the unmarried man s grade of medical specialty, it is possible to work in clinic or to hold little private ( single ) pattern. But to head subdivision in any infirmary or even the whole clinic, the sheepskin of the chief is necessary for enlargement of private ( single ) pattern. The grade of the chief about corresponds ( meets ) to our sheepskin about maximal instruction, and grade of the physician grade of the campaigner of scientific disciplines in Russia. The equivalent of a grade of the physician of scientific disciplines in Great Britain does non be. There is a figure ( line ) of general ( common ) of import characteristics, characteristic for all universities. All of them appropriate ( give ) ain grades. Everyone have the indistinguishable demands at response on developing under the plan of the unmarried man. The big universities such as London inside themselves are subdivided into colleges. These colleges are a portion of university and give instruction on the certain forte. Individually in construction of university the colleges specialising on readying of the entrants to acknowledge on the basic plans ( modules ) of university, betterment of professional accomplishment of the experts, learning of English linguistic communication for the aliens are allocated. The little universities are subdivided into modules, and the name of colleges is appropriated ( given ) to preparative subdivisions and linguistic communication rates of the big universities. Polytechnic institutes. The system of polytechnic institutes plants in parallel university. Under the position all institutes are independent educational corporations. They appropriate ( give ) the sheepskin and grades on its ain behalf or on behalf of the national authorised Advice ( council ) CNAA. On many parametric quantities these institutes are really similar to universities, but have a figure ( line ) of differences. Most of import: in polytechnic institute it is possible to analyze wider spectrum of rates, than it is necessary on the chosen forte. The 2nd characteristic is the semi-annual or one-year class occupation on a forte which is carried out in one of the commercial or industrial companies. Equally good as university, the polytechnic institute gives instruction under t he plan of the unmarried man, and so chief and physician. Recently some of polytechnic institutes were renamed into universities, but the characteristics of preparation in them were saved. Colleges of maximal instruction. It is the 3rd discrepancy of response of maximal instruction in Great Britain. The colleges award nationally the recognized grades and diplomas both on academic, and on professional subjects. The alumnuss of colleges receive the maximal national sheepskin HND or grade of the unmarried man, and the sheepskin are awarded after each successfully finished plan. The colleges rarely have rates under the plan of the chief and practically neer are engaged in readying of the pupils under the plan of a scientific grade of the physician of doctrine. Many colleges have particular preparatory rates, at which successful expiration ( stoping ) the alumnuss are enlisted without scrutinies and competition for the farther preparation under the plan of the unmarried man in polytechnic institutes and universities. 2. School In Great Britain 30.000 comprehensive schools and 2300 # 8211 ; private ( single ) , named independent sector work. The bulk of comprehensive schools ( from 60 up to 90 % ) assorted. The private schools work as assorted fundamentally for the younger schoolboys, the preparation in the senior categories is conducted individually. In comprehensive schools kids study, as a regulation, complete twenty-four hours, the educational hebdomad makes 5 yearss. In England and Wales the school twelvemonth returns since September till July. In Scotland from center of August till the terminal of June, in Northern Ireland since September till July. The academic twelvemonth is divided ( shared ) into three footings for 13 hebdomads everyone. Elementary school To travel in school to child ren 2-4 old ages in England and Wales it is perfectly non necessary. Furthermore, the parents and prefer to give back them in kids s gardens holding plans of preschool readying, or in private ( single ) groups organized often by parents. There are besides particular commercial groups, in which kids train on the particular techniques, for illustration on a method Montessori. In Ireland the system kindergarten of preschool instruction is non so advanced. Probably, hence per 4 old ages in school is sent much more than kids, than in other parts of Britain. The obligatory instruction begins in England, Wales and Scotland per 5 old ages, in Northern Ireland per 4 old ages. Per 11 old ages in all parts of Great Britain kids base on balls in high school ( except for Scotland, where kids translate per 12 old ages ) . The simple schools are different. Irrespective of a type of school the schoolboys should go through an obligatory base rate of an simple school, therefore the disposal has the right independently to make up ones mind ( solve ) , what subjects, in what volume and in what category are studied, under what manuals and techniques the instruction is conducted. A natural effect is that fact, that learned for the certain period by the schoolboys of different schools the educational stuff does non co-occur. High school Now there are four types of high schools. In Municipal technological colleges ( MTC ) most talented kids act, from which prepare the experts of a high category in the field of modern engineerings and concern ; in 1992 of such colleges was merely 14. MTC the particular educational establishments, in which are taught obligatory topics of a general ( common ) rhythm, but. The most serious attending is given to learning of topics holding the attitude ( relation ) to modern concern, particularly information engineerings. To technological college can turn and usual school, if she is located, for illustration, in a countryside or industrial town, where the demand is much higher the experts, than on the alumnus without particular cognition. The most portion of funding of technological colleges bit by bit will be undertaken by ( with ) local concern concerns. The bulk of kids ( 90 % ) England, the Wales and Scotland visit ( attend ) comprehensive schools. It is explained by that in these schools accept all kids irrespective of abilities and train in all topics, which enter into a basal rate of high school. It is parallel of our usual regional schools without the profound survey of topics. From here adolescents who have reached ( achieved ) 16 old ages, are sent or in 6th signifier colleges, or in third colleges. Approximately 4 % of kids become the schoolboys grammar schools are kids shown abilities and proved, that they can analyze under the plans of an academic construction. Besides, by analogy, it some sort of our specialised schools with that difference, that in our specialised schools is profound teach one or several topics, and at the British schools a degree of learning on all basic subjects profound. Children here study up to 18 and even 19 old ages. Others attend secondary modern schools. Here accept kids till 16 old ages holding good practical accomplishments. Very much few high schools have the 6th category. As a regulation, wishing continue instruction should to move in Sixth Form Colleges. In these colleges the adolescents from 16 boulder clay 19 old ages can analyze, the preparation is conducted merely on twenty-four hours clip subdivision. The immature people older 19 old ages is non accepted in colleges # 8211 ; for them it is necessary to move in third college or college of farther instruction. In Northern Ireland of kids are still enlisted in school by consequences of proving. Merely really much few schools accept kids without preliminary testing. In Scotland the bulk of high schools all of them are non specialized fundamentally comprehensive, and in them there is besides 6th category. The adolescents who have finished school, non holding of the 6th category, can continue ( base on balls ) in another to this last twelvemonth, non proving therefore of troubles connected to hunt of school. 96 % of kids schoolboys of province high schools, others 4 % survey in private schools. More than in half of private schools the instruction is conducted individually. In Scotland there is no system of a general base rate of topics, as in England and Wales. The educational diagram, even after realisation of reform, has remained much more intense, than at schools of England and Wales, and includes a batch of topics. All topics are distributed ( allocated ) on 8 groups: linguistics and communications ; mathematical scientific disciplines ; natural-scientific topics ; human-centered and ecological scientific disciplines ; technological subjects ; topics of aesthetic development ; physical instruction ; faith and religious instruction. The schoolboys should take a lower limit in one obligatory topic from each group. On employment ( businesss ) on the chosen subjects there leaves 70 % of educational clip of each schoolboy. Private schools In private schools 7 % of all kids of Great Britain surveies merely. In Great Britain today works about 550 private schools. In Northern Ireland is unfastened 21 private schools. The reforms of system of instruction of Great Britain have touched the contents of educational procedure. Both the parents, and experts did non accept that kids excessively early began to screen by leaning to those or other scientific disciplines. In a consequence some topics, necessary for the formed ( educated ) adult male, dropped out of a school rate perfectly. As a consequence of reform the national school rate, obligatory for all types of schools was accepted: each schoolboy should go through four BASIC, cardinal phases of preparation and 10 basic topics. 1 phase boulder clay 7 old ages, kids ; 2 phases 7-11 old ages, adolescents ; 3 phases 11-14 old ages ( precede readying for bringing GCSE ) ; 4 phases 14-16 old ages ( readying for bringing GCSE and appropriate professional scrutinies ) . The basic topics are merely three: English linguistic communication, mathematics, scientific discipline. Obligatory are 7: engineering, history, geographics, music, art, physical instruction, modern foreign linguistic communication. Depending on a phase of developing the greater attending to this or that capable is given. Some topics are absent at the first phases, and occur merely on last ( for illustration, modern foreign linguistic communication ) . Depending on what portion of Great Britain the school is located in there can be topics, specific to the given district. For illustration at schools of Wales the schoolboys should analyze as the 2nd obligatory linguistic communication Welsh ( demand, which will work till 1999 ) . On each of topics the instructions work about what accomplishments and accomplishments should be developed in kids. For illustration, as a consequence of survey of a rate of English linguistic communication kids should happen five basic accomplishments: To be able to talk, to comprehend address from hearing, to read, to compose, to cognize spelling and ( is more enormous! ) to be able to compose by manus. The faith as a topic officially is non present at the list of school subjects, however spiritual ( and sexual, we shall add ) instruction is obligatory. At lessons the basic attending give to a Christianity, but tell every bit good about others spiritual tendencies, which representatives live in Great Britain. Daily at schools there passes a corporate church service. The parents have the right to let go of ( exempt ) the kid from survey of faith and visiting of services irrespective of, at school with what the kid surveies in a portion of Britain. As the circle of topics investigated at schools of Scotland was already marked, it is much wider: besides topics accepted in England and Wales, the obligatory survey of modern European linguistic communication, sociology, technological pattern, music or play is included still. The new demands on proving in such topics, as Latin linguistic communication, mathematics, modern linguistic communications, all right humanistic disciplines, ecology are published. The spiritual and religious instruction besides is switched on in school procedure. In Northern Ireland BASIC are faith and six subjects: English linguistic communication, mathematics, scientific discipline and engineering, environment and society ( community ) , assorted sorts of art. The rate of each consists of subjects from several topics, some topics are obligatory. 3. Sixth category and colleges of the farther preparation The colleges of the farther preparation can be both province, and private ( single ) . The bulk of them are specialized ( professional ) in others the pupils study general educational subjects with a sight on academic instruction. The contents of vocational preparation is developed in close cooperation with the representatives of local concern concerns, that the alumnuss were in demand and easy could happen to itself occupation. It is possible to analyze both on twenty-four hours clip subdivisions, and on eventide. Some plans named sandwich include theoretical subjects and practical occupation in the elective country at the endeavors. About reception in these educational establishments it is necessary to get down to believe one twelvemonth prior to go forthing school. The bulk have the purely certain footings of response of the paperss. 4. Higher instruction In Great Britain 89 universities ( including institute of distant instruction and 70 high schools. From them 39 are considered new. They were created after the Certificate ( act ) of 1992. Oldest universities Oxford ( is open in 12 century ) and Cambridge ( 13 centuries ) . The Scots universities St. Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh were unfastened at 15-16 centuries. The Oxford and Cambridge universities are known everything, even by ( with ) the people which are non traveling to analyze abroad. Will state by hyperbole however, that they best . Surely, any high school in the universe can non be compared to these by two universities on prestigiousness. For eight centuries of being history them has appeared filled assorted events. The celebrated people here studied. For illustration, Margaret Tetchier has ended module of chemical science in Oxford. These universities have turned to national fables. But besides other ancient universities, as for illustration St. Andrews, have besides really high repute. After 1980 many immature high schools, fundamentally polytechnic have appeared, the degree of learning at those universities has changed which earlier did n on vie to Oxford and Cambridge. In consequence some sheepskin of these high schools are appreciated even above, than Oxford and Cambridge. Particularly it concerns some modern fortes. Maximal instruction First Degree Study ( grade of the unmarried man ) The authorities of Great Britain is regular spends an independent appraisal of a degree and quality of learning in high schools. The appraisal is spent on four-mark system, it are taken into history a impregnation of the educational agenda, degree of instruction, security by proficient resources. To have an appraisal the high school is approved should on all parametric quantities to have an appraisal non below 2.

Analysis of Whole Foods Market using Nadler

Analysis of Whole Foods Market using Nadler Introduction Whole Foods Markets has been very successful, and the previous analysis has shown that this firm has the capacity to increase its productivity if it continues with its current positive trend. According to Coulter (2009), it is possible to determine if a firm is on the right path by analyzing its current strategies and future plans. It is apparent that Whole Foods Market has a management that has mastered the market trends.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Analysis of Whole Foods Market using Nadler-Tushman Congruence Model specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This firm has shown a strong indication that it has a capacity to meet the expectations of the market in a special way, making it one of the most preferred firms in this industry. However, for ABC company to be sure that Whole Foods Market is a firm worth investing in, it must have a detailed analysis of the firm. It must go beyond a simple analysis of the current market share and productivity of the firm. This is because there are cases where a firm may exaggerate its capacity in order to attract investors. In other cases, management would create a scenario where investors would believe that the firm has a large market share while in real sense that may not be true. For this reason, it is always important to have a surety of the real capacity of the firm by using all possible tools. In this study, the researcher will continue analyzing Whole Foods Market using Nadler- Tushman Congruence Model. This tool will help in analyzing the output of this firm in the market and the congruence of different performance elements. Performance of Whole Foods Market at the Organizational Level According to Richardson (2006), when analyzing the performance of an organization, care should always be taken to determine some of the factors that are indicators of performance. For instance, an analysis of performance can be conducted to determine th e output of a firm. The output can help determine the performance of an organization. It is also possible to determine the profitability of the firm without putting emphasis on productivity. Others may also want to determine this performance by analyzing the productivity of factors of production. In this case, the analysis will be done on the output of the organization. Whole Foods Market is one of the leading grocery outlets and has positioned itself as a provider of healthy foods. The main goal of this firm has been to provide its customers with food considered healthy at reasonable prices and to increase its market share in this niche in the United States and Europe. The management of this firm realized that with the emergent of many diseases associated with unhealthy eating, the middle and upper class members of the society are becoming conscious of what they eat.Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These two groups, which make the main market share of this firm, have been looking for foods considered as healthy. This is what this firm has set to deliver in the market. Considering the productivity of this firm, it is true that there is high congruence between the output of this firm and the set goals. According to Anderson (2012), Whole Foods Market is one of the supermarkets that are trusted in the United States to offer foodstuffs that are recommended by doctors for their health benefits. For instance, some of the leading supermarkets in the United States have been stocking genetically modified foods despite the controversy that surrounds such foods. Whole Foods Market has jeopardized its profitability by avoiding such foods in its stores in most of the states in this country. For the states that have supported such foods, this supermarket has been keen to label its products in order to make its consumers aware of what it is providing. This has helped the firm develop a strong trust with the customers. It is an assurance that this firm cannot sell products considered harmful to its customers. The congruency between the output and the goal of the firm can be attributed to the achieved congruency of its culture and structure. The management has created a culture where foods considered as unhealthy are shunned from the stores of this firm. It has made everyone to believe that stocking unhealthy foods is an equivalent to direct attack on their highly valued customers. This culture emphasizes on the long lasting relationship between the firm and its customers. Selling to them food that may put them at risk would be like sending them away from the firm. This culture is highly congruent with the structure within the firm. The shelves at this firm do not stock food considered unhealthy as they have been struck off from the list of inventories. The management has also set up a system where all the stocks are tested to det ermine if they are in the right condition for consumption. This has earned this firm a great admiration in the market because customers have come to believe that Whole Foods Market is not just focused on profit generation, but also on the well-being of its customers. Performance of Whole Foods Market at Group Level An analysis of Whole Foods Market can be done from a number of fronts. According to Nadler (1977), there are different groups that exist in an organization, and care should always be taken when selecting the groups. This scholar says that within an organization, the groups can be selected based on the managerial level. In this case, there will be three groups which include the top management, middle management and the junior employees.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Analysis of Whole Foods Market using Nadler-Tushman Congruence Model specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Whole Foods Market has a clear st ructure of leadership which can be analyzed. Another approach can be on the basis of the departments within the organization. In this case, the departments can be finance, marketing, procurement and logistics, production, research and extension among other departments. For a firm with global coverage, the groups can be considered as the regions in which the firm operates. In the case of Whole Foods Market, this can be the United States and European markets. In this case, the groups will be taken as the managerial units. As was mentioned earlier, this will give three groups, which are the top management, middle management and junior employees. It is important to analyze the output of these three groups and determine how congruent they are with the organizational goals. The top management of this firm is responsible for making policies that help in running the organization. Besides making these policies, they have the responsibility to ensure that these policies are applied successful ly within the firm in order to yield the desired result. The top management therefore, has the responsibility of making the middle managers understand these policies in order to make their implementation a reality. The output of the top management can be considered to be highly congruent with the goals of the firm. This is because it has managed to develop policies that would ensure that Whole Foods Market continue to deliver quality healthy products in the market without overemphasizing on instant profitability. This output is demonstrated in the continuous delivery of healthy food by this firm in a market where other firms are focused on quick profitability. The second group of middle managers has also managed to give an output that is congruent with the goals of the firm. According to Nadler (1977), the middle managers are always very important in the implementation of policies. They are responsible for making non management employees implement policies that are formulated by the top management. Their output has been congruent to the goals of this firm to the extent that this group has been able to influence actions of the junior employees towards achieving the objectives of the firm. The middle managers have worked closely with the top managers and junior employees to ensure that there is smooth information flow from top managers to the employees and from employees to the top management.Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The third group has been the junior employees. These are the ambassador of Whole Foods Market. When a customer visits an outlet of this firm, it is the junior employees who will serve them. The customers and junior employees are always in constant contact and the impression given by these employees would be taken as a reflection of the entire firm. This group’s output has been marvelous. Junior employees have been working closely to ensure that they meet the set objectives of the firm. They know that the firm is focused on delivering healthy food to the customers. To achieve this, the employees have been keen on inspecting the shelves to ensure that products stocked are in good shape. They have also been very active in various other assignments which have helped this firm attain a positive image in the market. Performance of Whole Foods Market at Individual Level The output at individual level within this firm has been congruent with the goals of this firm. The firm has emplo yed performance contract at individual level in order to determine the output of the employees. The performance contract has been developed in line with the goals of this firm. This means that every individual within this firm must appreciate the need to achieve a particular goal in order to help the firm achieve its overall goal. From the top management to the junior most employees, there is a clear task that is assigned to them, and an output set that should be realized after a given period. The performance is always determined at the end of the financial year. This has helped improve the overall performance of this firm because every individual works hard to achieve the set goals. By developing specific output for every employee, it has become possible for this firm to align the objectives of individual employees to that of the entire organization. Achieving this congruency between goals of individual employees and that of the firm has helped Whole Foods Market meet its objective s in the market with a lot of ease. References Anderson, D. L. (2012). Organization development: The process of leading organizational change. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Coulter, M. (2009). Strategic Management in Action. New York: Pearson Higher Education. Nadler, D. (1977). A congruence model for diagnosing organizational behavior. New York: Columbia University, Graduate School of Business. Richardson, M. E. (2006). Organizational diagnosis: Using the congruence model as the theoretical framework in a complex organization. New York: Wiley Sons.

A Postmodernist View Of International Relations Politics Essay

A Postmodernist View Of International Relations Politics Essay Some scholars argue that alternative approaches to IR theory have not made any significant contributions to the theorization of IR. Moreover, these approaches lead our IR theory into disorder and we are left with a lack of direction. However, focusing on Postmodernism, we find it has produced the idea of the power-knowledge relationship to criticize the â€Å"absolute truth† which is proposed by Positivism, and also provides us with different methodologies such as genealogy, text, narrative, discourse, deconstruction and double reading to explain world politics. Besides, Postmodernism has utilized a variety of methods such as deconstruction of text to overcome the theories and concepts that people believe (Der Derian and Shapiro, 1989). In the past international theory has been dominated by four main theories: Realism, Liberalism, Marxism and Constructivism. However, in the last two decades there has been a dramatic change to this picture. A range of new approaches has develo ped to aid understanding of world politics. In the context of globalization, even Realism seems inadequate to explain issues like the rise of non-state actors, identity politics, transnational social movements and information technology. The new major development is not only underway in the academic discipline of social science but also in the philosophy of social science, in a movement known as Positivism. Thus many alternative ways of thinking about the social sciences have been proposed and since the picture of IR theory has changed a series of alternative approaches has emerged as more relevant to world politics in the twenty first century (Smith S, 2008). Until the late 1980s, most social scientists in International Relations tended to be Positivists. But since then Positivism has been under attack. The assumptions made by Positivism met with dissent as criticism of the IR theories led by Positivism began to emerge (Smith S, 2008). This is the so-called â€Å"the third debateà ¢â‚¬  (Ashley R., 1987; 1990; Walker R. B. J., 1993). It can also be called the Positivism and Post-Positivism debate (Lapid Y., 1989; Jim G., 1990; Smith S., 1995).. The dissent from Positivism prominently contains Feminism, Critical theory, Post-colonialism, Poststructuralism and Postmodernism. Their common idea is that they all see the world as something external to the IR theory (Smith S., 2008).Postmodernism is the term used by sociologists and others to describe a way of thinking that has become pervasive in the Western world in the last twenty-five years. It is an approach to reality that is having a significant effect on architecture, art, education, law, literature, psychotherapy, science, theatre, and the study of history and people’s view of religion (Exploring Christianity-Truth, n.d.). It reached IR theory in the mid-1980s, but can only be said to have really arrived in the past fifteen years (Smith S., 2008).The term â€Å"Postmodernism† first entered th e philosophical lexicon in 1979, with the publication of The Postmodern Condition by Jean-Franà §ois Lyotard (Stanford Encyclopedia of philosophy, 2005). Other significant writers who have promoted Postmodernism are De Man, Elshtain, Geoffrey Hartman, Harold Bloom, Michel Foucault, J. Hillis Miller, Jacques Derrida, Habermas, Richard Rorty and Rob Walker. Postmodernists who have made important contributions to IR theory are Richard Ashley, James Der Derian, David Campbell and William Connolly. Its origins are found in the philosophies of Nietzsche, Heidegger, Marx and Freud (Exploring Christianity-Truth, n.d.; Smith S., 2008).

Developmental Influences in the Prenatal Eveironment Essay

Developmental Influences in the Prenatal Eveironment - Essay Example Regardless of the conditions, it is a well-known fact among health care professionals that those women bearing a child are always exposed to factors may it be genetic predispositions, teratogenic agents or even stresses levels. Throughout the course of the gestational period, the woman as well as her partner and family support must be sufficiently equipped with the appropriate knowledge and latest information regarding childbirth. With a huge number of factors to consider, the only weapon that will effectively combat any hazards is knowledge. It is imperative that people have the correct understanding of the determined elements that greatly influence this miraculous bearing of a life inside one’s womb. Developmental Influences in Prenatal Environment Fortunately, in a specialized study and field of medicine, there have been already extensive researches and study about the most significant determinants whether for the worse or better effects on the process. Among the vast array of agents that bear bad effects, prescription drugs, caffeine, use of tobacco and alcohol are the worst because it is associated with a person’s lifestyle. Furthermore, some pregnant women are skeptical about the accuracy of such advices as these habits do not really cause harm to the health of the mother. However, once the baby is born, the effects become more apparent on the neonate and it might already be too late. First and foremost, prescription drugs, particularly thalidomide which was the earliest detected harmful drug, have been proven to cause congenital defects such as absence of limbs. This caused such an alarm and elicited immediate and subsequent researches on other drugs that would otherwise be therapeutic in normal conditions. The results conclude the detrimental effects that anticoagulants, anticonvulsants, selected antibiotics and artificial hormones bear on the fetus. Moreover, drinking caffeinated beverages are declared to be harmful despite the lack of em pirical basis. While it is still unclear of the possible outcomes of coffee or tea as well as some carbonated soda intake, it would be wise to stay away from them or at least limit the amount. The expecting mother should stay on the safe side and not risk the spontaneous abortion or low birth weight infant that often results with caffeine. Smoking and alcoholism are considerations that have tremendous significance. Even when not pregnant, these two lifestyle choices already have a questionable effect on the health of an individual; what more with pregnant women who have heightened sensitivity to a number of environmental factors? Based on the previous cases, there are many possible ill outcomes on the smoking mother’s developing fetus. Neonates with low birth weight or congenital defects are the most prevalent reactions but the worst possibility is death of the infant. The nicotine’s degree of effect is also dependent on the dosage. Alcoholism during pregnancy is carri es along with it the serious, ill consequences. They have even established the fetal alcohol syndrome which equals a group of anomalies and malformations in the brain, eyes, hearts, head, joints and face. The connection between the amount of alcohol allowable to the detrimental effect is still a blur. Therefore, to guarantee the absence of such physical and cognitive deformities, it will be wise to maintain sobriety as well as stay away from the occasional drinking throughout the whole gestational period.